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Asthma essay full guide: Introduction, outline, examples

This essential guide to writing an asthma essay will help any student master the craft of producing a successful written work. From researching and outlining your ideas on the subject to developing an argument and ensuring the paper is correctly formatted, this article outlines the key steps of creating a great essay about asthma.

What is Asthma

Asthma is a chronic lung condition that causes difficulty breathing, wheezing, and coughing. It is an inflammatory disorder of the airways that affects 10-15% of the population worldwide and most commonly occurs in children and adolescents. In those affected by asthma, their airways will become swollen, constricted, and filled with mucus, making it difficult to breathe normally.

When someone experiences an asthma attack, also known as an exacerbation or flare-up, their symptoms can worsen, resulting in further difficulty breathing and other physical changes such as a rapid heartbeat or chest tightness. Common triggers for asthmatic attacks include exercise, dust mites, strong smells, or cigarette smoke. The severity of these asthma attacks can range from mild to life-threatening, depending on the individual’s sensitivity to triggers.

Causes of Asthma

The most common causes of asthma are allergies and environmental triggers such as smoke or air pollution. Allergens like pollen, pet dander, and dust mites can induce an allergic reaction in some individuals, leading to inflammation in their airways.

Exposure to tobacco smoke has been shown to increase the risk of asthma in children who have not yet developed the condition. Other environmental pollutants , such as cleaning products or aerosol sprays, may also trigger an attack by irritating a person’s lungs.

Symptoms of Asthma

Common symptoms of asthma include

Wheezing, which sounds like a whistling noise when you breathe; chest tightness – feeling like something heavy is pressing on your chest;
Coughing – either dry or wet coughs that are worse at night
Difficulty breathing – feeling out of breath when doing everyday activities such as climbing stairs or walking uphill

Other less common signs may include fatigue, loss of appetite, anxiety or panic attacks, facial swelling, and excessive mucus production in your throat.

Asthma assessment and plan

An asthma assessment includes collecting information about the patient, such as their symptoms, triggers, medications, and lifestyle factors that may influence their condition. This information helps healthcare providers develop an effective treatment plan for each individual patient.

The plan may include lifestyle changes such as avoiding allergens or physical activity; taking preventive medications; or emergency treatments if needed. An effective asthma management plan should also include regular follow-up appointments with healthcare providers to review progress, adjust medications if necessary and ensure the patient is managing their condition properly.

Treatments for Asthma

Following an asthma assessment and diagnosis, inhaled medications are often used for daily management and quick relief when experiencing an attack. Inhaled corticosteroids reduce inflammation in the airways, while long-acting bronchodilators help keep airways open for up to 12 hours after use. Oral medications can control asthma symptoms and may be prescribed when inhalers do not suffice.

Writing an asthma essay

Writing an asthma assignment can be daunting, especially if you are unfamiliar with the condition. Asthma is a chronic respiratory disorder that affects your breathing and can make it difficult to do even simple activities such as walking or talking.

To write a successful essay on asthma, it is essential to understand the basics of the condition and its effects.

Research what causes asthma and who is at risk of developing it
Familiarize yourself with the treatments available for managing symptoms and preventing attacks
Brainstorm ideas for your essay
Consider writing about how the condition has impacted your life or someone close to you personally or professionally
You could also focus on how recent advancements in medical technology have improved treatment options for people living with this condition

Asthma essay outline

Writing an asthma essay can be challenging, but having a well-defined outline can make the task much easier. An outline will help you organize your essay and ensure it covers all essential aspects of the condition. Here are some tips to help you create an effective strategy for your asthma essay.

Start by deciding on a thesis statement for the essay. This should provide an overview of what you plan to cover in the paper and guide your argument throughout
Begin organizing information into main points or ideas that support each argument. These points should be clearly stated and supported with evidence from reliable sources such as research studies or medical journals
Write out detailed sub-points to further explain each main point or idea in greater detail. Include quotes and examples to support each point or argument effectively.

Asthma essay introduction

The introduction should begin by grabbing the reader’s attention. Use exciting facts or questions related to asthma to help engage the audience in your work. It is also important to provide background information regarding asthma, so readers understand why this topic is essential. Be sure to include reliable data, such as statistics on mortality rates or prevalence among different populations.

Asthma essay body paragraphs

The first step when writing an asthma essay body paragraph is to determine what your main points are going to be and how you plan on presenting them in the body of your essay. Once you have selected this, you’ll need to research and collect information about these points. This could include articles, studies, statistics, or any other sources that may be relevant.

It is vital to organize your thoughts logically, so they flow together nicely when writing the actual body paragraphs. Start each paragraph with an introductory sentence that introduces the perspective you will discuss in that particular paragraph.

After this, provide evidence and supporting details for your argument, which should come from the research gathered earlier. Finally, conclude each paragraph by summarizing the main points and tying them together into one solid conclusion or argument.

Asthma essay conclusion

The primary goals of an asthma essay conclusion are to summarize your main points, draw a valid conclusion based on those points, and provide a sense of closure for your reader. Start by briefly summarizing each point you made throughout your paper. Then clearly state your overall conclusion about the topic in one or two sentences.

This is where you provide a final perspective or opinion on the issue you discussed in the body of your paper. Finally, end with a thought-provoking statement or idea that will leave readers reflecting on their views on asthma and its treatments or implications.

Reflective essay on asthma

A reflective essay on asthma is an insightful and personal exploration of the experience of living with the condition. Reflecting on how this condition has impacted your life can bring a greater understanding and acceptance.

When writing a reflective essay on asthma, consider your personal experience with the condition, including symptoms they may have experienced in times of exacerbation and any treatments they may have pursued to alleviate those symptoms. You should also reflect upon how this condition has affected them physically and mentally, highlighting both positive and negative aspects.

Tips on how to write a Reflective essay on asthma

Writing a nursing essay on asthma can be an eye-opening experience for many. It allows the writer to reflect on their experiences with asthma and how it has impacted their life and will enable them to share that experience with others. Here are some tips on how to write a reflective essay about asthma:

It is crucial to understand what an asthma attack feels like and its effects to communicate the experience in writing effectively
Consider what aspects of your experience with asthma you would like to focus on. Are there specific events that stand out as particularly pivotal? Do you want to discuss the impact of living with this condition? Or perhaps explore how your lifestyle has changed since having asthma?
Think deeply about any emotions associated with this topic
Writing down what you feel physically and emotionally during an attack can help develop a more personal account of their experience
Try to keep a journal throughout the writing process in which you record any thoughts or observations related to asthma that come into your head
Consider researching treatments or therapies that have worked for others who have had asthma. This will give them a better understanding of how they can manage their symptoms while also giving readers insight into the treatment options available

Asthma essay topic ideas

The impact of asthma on one’s lifestyle and day-to-day activities
Various treatments available for controlling asthma symptoms
The different types of asthma and their symptoms
The psychological effects of living with asthma
Air pollution as a factor in causing or worsening existing cases of asthma in specific populations
Advances in technology and new devices available to help asthmatics manage their conditions
The current state of knowledge about asthma research, emerging treatments, technologies, and management strategies
The impact of better diagnosis methods and medications
The impact of poverty on access to medical care
How society views those who suffer from this illness

Bottom line

Asthma is a severe respiratory condition affecting millions of people worldwide. It can be managed with lifestyle changes, medications, and other treatments. This guide has provided an overview of asthma, including helpful information on its cause, symptoms, diagnosis, and treatment options, and how best to write an asthma essay.

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Asthma Essay With Conclusions

Info: 2061 words (8 pages) Nursing Essay Published: 11th Feb 2020

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Asthma is a major noncommunicable disease (NCD), affecting both children and adults, and is the most common chronic disease among children.
Inflammation and narrowing of the small airways in the lungs cause asthma symptoms, which can be any combination of cough, wheeze, shortness of breath and chest tightness.
Asthma affected an estimated 262 million people in 2019 (1) and caused 455 000 deaths.
Inhaled medication can control asthma symptoms and allow people with asthma to lead a normal, active life.
Avoiding asthma triggers can also help to reduce asthma symptoms.
Most asthma-related deaths occur in low- and lower-middle-income countries, where under-diagnosis and under-treatment is a challenge.
WHO is committed to improving the diagnosis, treatment and monitoring of asthma to reduce the global burden of NCDs and make progress towards universal health coverage.

Asthma is a chronic lung disease affecting people of all ages. It is caused by inflammation and muscle tightening around the airways, which makes it harder to breathe.

Symptoms can include coughing, wheezing, shortness of breath and chest tightness. These symptoms can be mild or severe and can come and go over time.

Although asthma can be a serious condition, it can be managed with the right treatment. People with symptoms of asthma should speak to a health professional.

Asthma is often under-diagnosed and under-treated, particularly in low- and middle-income countries.

People with under-treated asthma can suffer sleep disturbance, tiredness during the day, and poor concentration. Asthma sufferers and their families may miss school and work, with financial impact on the family and wider community. If symptoms are severe, people with asthma may need to receive emergency health care and they may be admitted to hospital for treatment and monitoring. In the most severe cases, asthma can lead to death.

Symptoms of asthma can vary from person to person. Symptoms sometimes get significantly worse. This is known as an asthma attack. Symptoms are often worse at night or during exercise.

Common symptoms of asthma include:

a persistent cough, especially at night
wheezing when exhaling and sometimes when inhaling
shortness of breath or difficulty breathing, sometimes even when resting
chest tightness, making it difficult to breathe deeply.

Some people will have worse symptoms when they have a cold or during changes in the weather. Other triggers can include dust, smoke, fumes, grass and tree pollen, animal fur and feathers, strong soaps and perfume.

Symptoms can be caused by other conditions as well. People with symptoms should talk to a healthcare provider.

Many factors have been linked to an increased risk of developing asthma, although it is often difficult to find a single, direct cause.

Asthma is more likely if other family members also have asthma – particularly a close relative, such as a parent or sibling.
Asthma is more likely in people who have other allergic conditions, such as eczema and rhinitis (hay fever).
Urbanization is associated with increased asthma prevalence, probably due to multiple lifestyle factors.
Events in early life affect the developing lungs and can increase the risk of asthma. These include low birth weight, prematurity, exposure to tobacco smoke and other sources of air pollution, as well as viral respiratory infections.
Exposure to a range of environmental allergens and irritants are also thought to increase the risk of asthma, including indoor and outdoor air pollution, house dust mites, moulds, and occupational exposure to chemicals, fumes or dust.
Children and adults who are overweight or obese are at a greater risk of asthma.

Asthma cannot be cured but there are several treatments available. The most common treatment is to use an inhaler, which delivers medication directly to the lungs.

Inhalers can help control the disease and enable people with asthma to enjoy a normal, active life.

There are two main types of inhaler:

bronchodilators (such as salbutamol), that open the air passages and relieve symptoms; and
steroids (such as beclometasone) that reduce inflammation in the air passages, which improves asthma symptoms and reduces the risk of severe asthma attacks and death.

People with asthma may need to use their inhaler every day. Their treatment will depend on the frequency of symptoms and the types of inhalers available.

Using an inhaler can be difficult, especially for children and during emergency situations. Using a spacer device makes it easier to use an aerosol inhaler. This helps the medicine to reach the lungs more easily. A spacer is a plastic container with a mouthpiece or mask at one end and a hole for the inhaler in the other. A homemade spacer, made from a 500ml plastic bottle, can be as effective as commercially manufactured spacers.

Access to inhalers is a problem in many countries. In 2021, bronchodilators were available in public primary health care facilities in half of low- and low-middle income countries, and steroid inhalers available in one third.

It is also important to raise community awareness to reduce the myths and stigma associated with asthma in some settings.

People with asthma and their families need education to understand more about their asthma. This includes their treatment options, triggers to avoid, and how to manage their symptoms at home.

It is important for people with asthma to know how to increase their treatment when their symptoms are worsening to avoid a serious attack. Healthcare providers may give an asthma action plan to help people with asthma to take greater control of their treatment.

WHO response

Asthma is included in the WHO Global Action Plan for the Prevention and Control of NCDs and the United Nations 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.

WHO is taking action to extend diagnosis of and treatment for asthma in a number of ways.

The WHO Package of Essential Noncommunicable Disease Interventions (PEN) was developed to help improve NCD management in primary health care in low-resource settings. PEN includes protocols for the assessment, diagnosis and management of chronic respiratory diseases (asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease), and modules on healthy lifestyle counselling, including tobacco cessation and self-care.

Reducing tobacco smoke exposure is important for both primary prevention of asthma and disease management. The Framework Convention on Tobacco Control is enabling progress in this area as are WHO initiatives such as MPOWER and mTobacco Cessation.

Air pollution is an important risk factor for asthma, causing new cases and making existing disease worse. WHO has developed training for health care workers on air pollution which highlights this link and offers practical advice to reduce and mitigate exposure.

1. Global burden of 369 diseases and injuries in 204 countries and territories, 1990–2019: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019 . Lancet. 2020;396(10258):1204-22

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Asthma What Is Asthma?

Language switcher.

Asthma is a chronic (long-term) condition that affects the airways in the lungs. The airways are tubes that carry air in and out of your lungs. If you have asthma, your airways can become inflamed and narrowed at times. This makes it harder for air to flow out of your airways when you breathe out. About 1 in 13 people in the United States have asthma, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention . It affects people of all ages and often starts during childhood. Certain things, such as pollen, exercise, viral infections, or cold air, can set off or worsen asthma symptoms . These are called asthma triggers . When symptoms get worse, you can experience an asthma attack .

There is no cure for asthma, but treatment and an asthma action plan can help you manage the condition. The plan may include monitoring, avoiding triggers, and using medicines.

Asthma Facts for Patients and Families

Get basic facts about what asthma is and how it affects your airways.

You can find asthma guides, tip sheets, and other resources through the NHLBI’s Learn More Breathe Better ® Asthma program.

Asthma essay full guide: Introduction, outline, examples

by ella | Feb 11, 2024 | Health

What is Asthma

Causes of Asthma

Symptoms of Asthma

Common symptoms of asthma include

Wheezing, which sounds like a whistling noise when you breathe; chest tightness – feeling like something heavy is pressing on your chest;
Coughing – either dry or wet coughs that are worse at night
Difficulty breathing – feeling out of breath when doing everyday activities such as climbing stairs or walking uphill

Other less common signs may include fatigue, loss of appetite, anxiety or panic attacks, facial swelling, and excessive mucus production in your throat.

Asthma assessment and plan

Treatments for Asthma

Writing an asthma essay

To write a successful essay on asthma, it is essential to understand the basics of the condition and its effects.

Research what causes asthma and who is at risk of developing it
Familiarize yourself with the treatments available for managing symptoms and preventing attacks
Brainstorm ideas for your essay
Consider writing about how the condition has impacted your life or someone close to you personally or professionally
You could also focus on how recent advancements in medical technology have improved treatment options for people living with this condition

Asthma essay outline

Start by deciding on a thesis statement for the essay. This should provide an overview of what you plan to cover in the paper and guide your argument throughout
Begin organizing information into main points or ideas that support each argument. These points should be clearly stated and supported with evidence from reliable sources such as research studies or medical journals
Write out detailed sub-points to further explain each main point or idea in greater detail. Include quotes and examples to support each point or argument effectively.

Asthma essay introduction

Asthma essay body paragraphs

Asthma essay conclusion

Reflective essay on asthma

Tips on how to write a Reflective essay on asthma

It is crucial to understand what an asthma attack feels like and its effects to communicate the experience in writing effectively
Consider what aspects of your experience with asthma you would like to focus on. Are there specific events that stand out as particularly pivotal? Do you want to discuss the impact of living with this condition? Or perhaps explore how your lifestyle has changed since having asthma?
Think deeply about any emotions associated with this topic
Writing down what you feel physically and emotionally during an attack can help develop a more personal account of their experience
Try to keep a journal throughout the writing process in which you record any thoughts or observations related to asthma that come into your head
Consider researching treatments or therapies that have worked for others who have had asthma. This will give them a better understanding of how they can manage their symptoms while also giving readers insight into the treatment options available

Asthma essay topic ideas

The impact of asthma on one’s lifestyle and day-to-day activities
Various treatments available for controlling asthma symptoms
The different types of asthma and their symptoms
The psychological effects of living with asthma
Air pollution as a factor in causing or worsening existing cases of asthma in specific populations
Advances in technology and new devices available to help asthmatics manage their conditions
The current state of knowledge about asthma research, emerging treatments, technologies, and management strategies
The impact of better diagnosis methods and medications
The impact of poverty on access to medical care
How society views those who suffer from this illness

Bottom line

Order a similar assignment, and have writers from our team of experts write it for you, guaranteeing you an A

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Stanford University School of Medicine blog

Breathing: A reflection on living with asthma

We played cards sometimes, my mother and I, during my childhood asthma attacks in the middle of the night. I would creep past the bathroom door and to my parents' bedroom door. Mom , I would whisper. Mom .

That's all I needed to say. She came to the living room, where I waited for her, and stayed up the rest of the night to watch me breathe.

Watching me breathe meant making decisions about whether to call the doctor in the middle of the night or take me into his office in the morning.

Sometimes I put my hands on my head, fingers clasped together because latching them and pressing down on my head created more energy to suck in the next breath. As I grew older, I avoided placing my hands on my head, afraid to tip my mother off about how bad the attack was.

For a long and harrowing attack, she woke my father to drive me out into the night air, which we thought helped with the breathing. We meandered through the neighborhoods bordering the hospitals, looping repeatedly down certain streets, our leisurely pace a sham, because really, he remained close to those hospital entrances in case my breathing worsened, propelling us both into the light and warmth of the busy Emergency Departments.

Sometimes watching me meant making honey, lemon and whiskey toddies, or, if we had no whiskey, just honey and lemon, so the hot liquid could break up the phlegm in my chest. But often, as I sipped on my honey and lemon, my mother rubbed my back and shoulders, which were always hunched down with the effort of breathing. Or pounded between my shoulder blades, another strategy to break up the phlegm.

If the breathing became easier, either on its own or because I'd had some of the medicine stockpiled in our cupboard, and the rattling and wheezing diminished, my mother would pull out the cards. She still needed to watch my progress; neither one of us could rest yet. We would play two-handed Euchre. Or double solitaire.

I don't know how my mother's level of anxiety fluctuated when she watched me breathe through the night, but she never smoked in the house during my asthma attacks. For intense attacks, after waking my father, she might take a break from watching me and go into the backyard with a cigarette to look at the sky. She never fretted in front of me. She remained calm and positive.

During my senior year of high school, after a stressful week of classes, a swine flu shot, and a complicated AP chemistry experiment, I suffered an asthma attack, the worst I'd had in years. My pediatrician instructed the hospital to admit me straight to a floor. Some bureaucratic glitch delayed the delivery of one of those injections I needed to open my airways and help me breathe. My mother, summoned from work, told me to keep going, just a bit longer. Later, I told her, "I think you kept me alive." She told me that she'd never been so worried. She'd thought for sure I was dying.

Years later, when she died, her own breathing remained silent until near the end. Small puffs of sound emerged from her lips, like the snore puffs she'd made on those nights I'd returned from college for a visit and lay awake with the hums and creaks of my childhood home. In the hospital, as she lay dying, her brain stem already dead, I couldn't encourage her as she exhaled her last puffs. I just listened.

"Living is about the breathing," I might have said to my mother on one of those nights I clambered through an attack. We both knew that. But sometimes it helped to hear things aloud.

This piece, originally in longer form , is part of an ongoing collaboration with Months to Years, a nonprofit quarterly publication that showcases nonfiction, poetry and art exploring mortality and terminal illness.

Dawn Newton, a writer in East Lansing, Michigan, was diagnosed with stage IV lung cancer in November 2012 and has lived with asthma all her life. Her memoir, Winded: A Memoir in Four Stages, will be published in October by Apprentice House Press at Loyola University Maryland. Her blog is at www.dawnmarienewton.com .

Photo by Alfonso Cerezo

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Learn About Asthma

Asthma is a chronic (or lifelong) disease that can be serious—even life-threatening. There is no cure for asthma. The good news is that with proper management, you or your loved one with asthma can live a normal, healthy life.

What Is Asthma?

Asthma is a chronic lung disease that makes it harder to move air in and out of your lungs. It can start at any age. Understanding can help put you on the right path to managing asthma.

Asthma Basics

Causes & risk factors, types of asthma, asthma facts.

More than 25 million Americans have asthma, including 5.5 million children. It causes millions of lost school and workdays every year and billions in healthcare costs. Learn more about asthma trends and disease burden in our Asthma Trends Brief.

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Page last updated: November 27, 2023

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Home — Essay Samples — Nursing & Health — Asthma — Asthma: Causes, Pathophysiology, and Treatment

Asthma: Causes, Pathophysiology, and Treatment

Categories: Asthma

About this sample

Words: 635 |

Published: Apr 2, 2020

Words: 635 | Page: 1 | 4 min read

Introduction, pathophysiology, classification, management and treatment, lifestyle modification, medications, drug used to treat asthma, ipratropium bromide.

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Diabetes is a non-communicable disease, meaning that this health condition cannot be spread through natural human interactions. Due to this fact, the treatment options available for diabetic patients are not limited to bedrest [...]

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173 Asthma Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

🏆 best asthma topic ideas & essay examples, 💡 interesting topics to write about asthma, 📑 good research topics about asthma, 📌 simple & easy asthma essay titles, 👍 good essay topics on asthma, ❓ research questions about asthma.

SOAP Note for an Asthmatic Patient Today, asthma is known as one of the most common respiratory diseases in the United States, as well as in the whole world.
Living with a Chronic Disease: Diabetes and Asthma This paper will look at the main effects of chronic diseases in the lifestyle of the individuals and analyze the causes and the preventive measures of diabetes as a chronic disease.
Asthma: Pathophysiology, Symptoms, and Manifestations The primary organ affected by asthma is the lungs, as the disease is caused by airway narrowing and the inability to breathe.
Social Determinants of Health: Asthma Among Old People in Ballarat On the other hand, Melbourne is the capital city of the State of Victoria with a population of 4 million people, making it the second most populated city in Australia. This is a great challenge […]
Application: Asthma The features of the air passage include the bronchi, alveoli and the bronchioles. The pathophysiology of chronic and acute asthma exacerbation describes the process and stages that lead to airway obstruction.
Chronic Asthma and Acute Asthma Exacerbation The consequences of the smooth muscles’ tightening can be aggravated by the thickening of the bronchial wall due to acute edema, cellular infiltration, and remodeling of the airways chronic hyperplasia of smooth muscles, vessels, and […]
Asthma Exacerbation in Pregnancy The patient has a history of childhood asthma diagnosis, and she is presently exhibiting typical asthma symptoms like wheezing and a nonproductive cough.
Asthma: Epidemiological Analysis and Care Plan Asthma has a variety of symptoms and pathogenesis, including acute, subacute, or chronic inflammation of the airways, intermittent blockage of airflow, and hyperresponsiveness of the bronchi.
Asthma Diagnosis in Pregnant Women It may be essential to modify the type and dose of medication to compensate for the alterations in the female’s metabolism and the severity of her health condition.
Healthy Lifestyle Interventions in Comorbid Asthma and Diabetes In most research, the weight loss in cases of comorbid asthma and obesity is reached through a combination of dietary interventions and physical exercise programs.
Clinical Case of Asthma in African American Boy By combining the use of corticosteroids and exercises into the treatment plan, as well as educating the patient and his parents about the prevention and management of asthma attacks, a healthcare practitioner will be able […]
Asthma From a Clinic Perspective And the prevalence of asthma in the European Union is 9. In UK and Ireland experience some of the greatest rates of asthma in the globe.
Corticosteroids and Inhalants in Asthma As well as the causes of fatigue and physiological events during an asthma attack, and how the body compensates for an increase in CO2, with a focus on the effects of hypercapnia on the central […]
The Treatment Modalities of Asthma However, in order to limit susceptibility to the triggers, the patient is advised to take long-term asthma medications on a daily basis.
Asthma Diagnostics and Treatment According to the Asthma and Allergy Foundation of America, some of the most common symptoms of asthma include cough, wheezing, shortness of breath, chest tightness, and fainting.
Asthma: Description, Diagnosis and Treatment First of all, before discussing measures to prevent an increase in the case of the disease, it is necessary to understand the nature of the disease.
Inflammation’s Role in Asthma Development This work is written in order to study the role of inflammation plays in the development of asthma on the basis of research papers.
The Use of Tezspire: The Management of Asthma The brochure describes the use of Tezspire, which is a drug used for the management of asthma. The brochure’s target audience is patients with a long history of asthma and their family and caregivers.
Asthma Treatment in Pediatric Patients: Spacer vs. Conventional Inhaler Computers and the Internet connection have become available to a considerable portion of the population, which equally serves as a facilitator of the new solution implementation.
Physical Assessment Report for an 18-Years-Old Asthma Patient The boy and his family suspect that he is suffering frequent asthma attacks due to allergies to cold and dust, however none of his members of the family suffer from asthma.
Asthma: Pathophysiology, Etiology, Diagnosis, and Complications The pathobiology of asthma remains greatly indeterminate, and its pathophysiology involves abnormalities of the respiratory system organs, including the lungs and the bronchial tree.
Use of Scientific Method in Asthma and Allergic Reactions Study As in the case of asthma and allergic reactions investigations, descriptive studies can be used to describe the nature of the relationship between asthma and asthma attack, therefore explaining the cause and effect.
COVID-19 Susceptibility in Bronchial Asthma by Green et al. The research reflected in the article aims to trace the susceptibility of patients with bronchial asthma to coronavirus disease. It is noted that the receptors that respond to those occurring in the environment are the […]
Exercise-Induced Asthma in Children The onset of an EIA attack follows a constriction of the airways of the patient after physical exercise. When water shifts from the cells of the epithelium to the airway surface, it causes a release […]
Child Asthma Emergency Department Visits: Plan for the Reduction The population of Central Harlem will be the target of this intervention that aims to decrease the rate of children’s asthma-related ED visits.
The Child Asthma Emergency Department Visits The program makes it easy for medical caregivers to carry accurate assessments to pediatric patients. The program is easily scalable, and it is also sustainable, making 5A’s the best solution to Child Asthma Emergency Department […]
Asthma Among Children of Color in New York City On the other hand, the conditioning of the matter to a particular scope hinders the determination of a rational scientific solution to the core issue.
Asthma in Relation to Inability to Breathe: A Case Study The shortness of breath is known to be a primary cause of Asthma, whereas the asthmatic state of an individual also has the capabilities of influencing shortness of breath as a result of the lung […]
Asthma Treatment Options, Long-Term Control, and Complications Speaking of the patient profile, the first aspects that should be mentioned are the peculiarities of asthma disease history and other health conditions that might affect the treatment pattern.
Occupational Asthma: Case Discussion The primary diagnosis is occupational asthma; the causative agents of the indicated type of the disease are located directly at the person’s workplace.
The Relationship Between Vitamin D Deficiency and Asthma Disease in Children The reaction of the host on the respiratory infections is closely correlated with the deficiency of the vitamin D [1]. This is because of the suggestion that providing vitamin D supplements to patients with low […]
Asthma: Culture and Disease Analysis The cause of this condition is thought to be the narrowing of the person’s airways. This, as the experts explain, is a result of the inflammation of the airways in the lungs.
Relationship Between Asthma and the Body Mass Index The optimal design of the study is the use of questionnaires, since the nature of the research requires the consent of individual respondents in form of writing.
The Connection Between Asthma and Dust Emissions This is attributed to an increased rise of annual sandstorms and continued constructions that create a huge amount of dust in the air.
Prevalence of Asthma Due to Climatic Conditions Newhouse and Levetin also conducted a study to find the correlation between the airborne fungal spores, the concentration of pollen, meteorological factors and other pollutants, and the occurrence of rhinitis and asthma.
Helping African American Children Self-Manage Asthma The purpose of this critique is to analyze the weaknesses of the study. The title of the report Helping African American Children Self-Manage Asthma: The Importance of Self-Efficacy adequately identified the population of interest, namely […]
Asthma Among the Japanese Population In a report by Nakazawa in which the author sought to determine the trend of asthma mortality among the Japanese population, emotional stress and fatigue emerged as the leading factors for the causation of asthma.
Informed Consent – Ellen Roche, Asthma Study People interested in taking part in research trials have the right to know risks, benefits, procedures, the aim of the study, and protection of identity. This violation of subjects’ right led to the formation of […]
Asthma Prevalence: Sampling and Confidence Intervals In the study which was carried out in United States in 2009 amongst the children and adults to show the prevalence of Asthma, a sample of 38,815 and confidence interval of 95% was used.
Osteopathic Manipulation in Patients With Chronic Asthma This article seeks to criticise the application of osteopathic manipulation in the treatment of asthma patients. The focus is on the intervention of osteopathic manipulation therapy in restoring normal functioning and compliance to the thoracic […]
5-Year-Old With Asthma: Developmental Milestones & Care According to his mother, he also regularly grinds his teeth at night.G.J.was delivered normally and the mother had no complications. He could listen to instructions and get whatever he is being asked by his mother.
Asthma Respiratory Disorder Treatment Asthma etiology is the classification of various risk factors responsible for causing asthma in children and adults. Asthma etiology is the scientific classification of risk factors that cause Asthma in children and adult.
Childhood Bronchial Asthma: Process & Outcome Measures The evidence that is used to support the adoption of this measure is the guideline on clinical practice, as well as the procedure of formal consensus.
Biological Basis of Asthma and Allergic Disease The immunological response in asthmatic people fails in the regulation of the production of the Th2 cells and the anti-inflammatory cells.
Asthma and Medications: The Ethical Dilemma in Treating Children One of the major causes of dilemma, however, is the inability to manage and treat the condition in children under the age of 7 years due to ethical dilemma.
Understanding Asthma in the Elderly: Triggers, Treatment, and Challenges The main objective of the given paper is to analyze the reasons of emergence of asthma among the elderly population, as well as research peculiarities of this group’s reaction to this condition as compared to […]
Exercise-Related Asthma in the 21st Century The study has also reported that almost 48 % of parents recognize the fact that children suffering from asthma have higher probability of the emergence of the typical symptoms of IEB.
The Nature and Control of Non-Communicable Disease – Asthma Asthma is caused due to the inflammation of the airways which in turn induces cough, wheezing, breathlessness and a feeling of tightness in the chest.
Asthma in School Going Youth: Effects and Management The control and prevention of adverse effects of asthma are goals of managing asthma as stated in the National Asthma Education and Preventive Program asthma treatment guidelines.
Asthma in the African American Community The paper will also highlight the effects that the treatment options used by African Americans have on the prevalence of the disease.
Asthma Definition and Its Diagnostics The geographical area plays a major role in the distribution of the prevalence of asthma and its predisposing factors. There is scientific evidence that the presence of a history of asthma in parents is a […]
Foot Orthosis, Asthma & Benign Tumor It is a chronic inflammatory disorder of the airways, associated with the following symptoms: variable airflow obstruction and enhanced bronchial responsiveness to a variety of irritants.
Asthma in School Children in Saudi Arabia The purpose of this paper is to review the current literature on asthmatic disease in Saudi Arabia to accurately determine the epidemiology nature of the condition through community assessment for purposes of compiling a health […]
Usefulness of Acupuncture in Asthma Treatment The case for the effectiveness of acupuncture in the treatment of asthma is to be further supported by more research studies, since current and past research has been affected by a number of limitations or […]
Hypertension, Asthma and Glaucoma The assignment of duties is also a difficult task since the victim is forgetful and disoriented, which in this case may lead to delays or failures within the working system.
The Management of Asthma According to the Australian Bureau of Statistics, the country has the highest prevalence of Asthma in the world. Quick-relief medications are used to manage symptoms that come with acute attacks of asthma-like coughing, tightening of […]
Treatment of Asthma in Australia The rapid-acting treatments are taken to quicken the process of reversing acute asthmatic attacks by causing the relaxation of the smooth muscles of the bronchial system. These preventers reduce the sensitivity of airways hence swelling […]
The Asthma and Emphysema Analysis According to Kinsella and others, etiology of emphysema is often associated with smocking, and this led to the hypothesis that emphysema develops with age whereas asthma is mostly prevalent in children.
Asthma: Causes and Treatment Effects of asthma are more pronounced mostly at night and early in the morning and this results in lack of sleep.
Acute Asthma: Home and Community-Based Care For Patients It refers to the continuum of care extended to patients from the health facility to the community and homes. An asthma attack is fatal and patients should be encouraged to perform self-administration of medication.
How Emotions Spark Asthma Attack Although stress and emotions are known to start in a patient’s mind, asthma in itself is a physical disease that affects the patient’s lungs, and stress can create strong physiological reactions which may lead to […]
Asthma Is a Chronic Inflammatory Disorder Hence the main purpose of the study is to investigate the association of smoking and secondhand smoke with level of asthma control, severity, and quality of life among adult asthmatics.
Asthma: Leading Chronic Illness Among Children in the US Ample communication was to be provided to the family, Head Start personnel and the Child’s physician in relation to the asthma. A great reduction was seen in the asthma symptoms and emergency.
Dealing With Asthma: Controversial Methods Because of the enormous speed of the illness spread, dealing with asthma is becoming a burning issue of the modern medicine. This is due to the fact that the muscles of the broche lack the […]
Asthma Investigation: Symptoms and Treatment In patients with asthma, the condition causes the inflammation of air passages that is followed by the significant narrowing of airways.
Severe Asthma: The Alair Bronchial Thermoplasty System The article focuses on asthma and the treatment that could alleviate the condition. Most of asthma patients are used to having an inhaler with them and this way, there is not much new technology, except […]
Asthma in Pediatric and Occupational Therapy Treatment The flow peak is more than 80% of the child’s personal best, and less than 30% variability in the day-to-day flow of the peak measurements.
Public & Community Health: Asthma in Staten Island There is borough of Bronx, which is considered to be the poorest, and the case with it has been stated here that asthma is the fate of the residents.
Health, Culture, and Identity as Asthma Treatment Factors She is the guardian of Lanesha and, despite raising another grandson and caring for her elderly mother, she is responsible for the health of the girl.
The Anti-Inflammatory Role of IL-26 in Uncontrolled Asthma Research findings suggest that the suppression of IL-26 secretion in the lungs would alleviate the anti-inflammatory response associated with uncontrolled asthma.
Asthma Pathophysiology and Genetic Predisposition The pathophysiology of this disorder involves one’s response to an antigen and a subsequent reaction of the body in the form of inflammation, bronchospasm, and airway obstruction.
Asthma: Pathopharmacological Foundations for Advanced Nursing Practice Because of the high prevalence of asthma in the USA, mortality and morbidity rates in the country are also excessive. Asthma is one of the most common diseases in the USA, with high prevalence and […]
Asthma as Community Health Issue in the Bronx The rate of people, especially children, with asthma in this area is among the highest ones in the city. The issue of asthma in New York and the Bronx, in particular, is connected to multiple […]
Environmental Factors of Asthma in Abu Dhabi City A countrywide evaluation of the demises related to environmental pollution that takes a significant role in the rising cases of asthma shows UAE as the most affected nations since the discovery of oil in 1958 […]
Occupational Asthma: Michelle’s Case The first test is not prohibitively expensive, and the patient should be able to afford it if she can pay for the medications.
Asthma Patient’s Examination and Care Plan HPI: Being discharged from the facility ten weeks ago, the patient reports having shortness of breath, severe wheezing, and coughing. To control symptoms, the patient takes HTCZ and Enalapril.
Asthma and Stepwise Management The stepwise approach to asthma treatment and management is a six-step approach, according to which the number and the dose of medications and frequency of management are increased as necessary when symptoms persist and then […]
Asthma, Its Diagnostics, Treatment and Prevention Hippocrates was the one who labeled the disease as asthma, a Greek word that was used to denote the idea of “wind or to blow”, perhaps an attempt to describe the wheezing sound produced by […]
Asthma: Evidence-Based Pharmacological Treatment For instance, in children under 6, the development of the disease is typically preceded by the asthma-like symptoms that manifest themselves roughly at the age of three.
The Evaluation of Evidence Linking Asthma With Occupation Overall, the results of this study supported the initial argument of the authors in regard to the need for frequent updates and modifications of JEMs in order for them to reflect the most relevant and […]
Pregnant Woman’s Asthma Case The case mentions the decreased effectiveness of the fluticasone MDI that she uses which can also be a clue to her condition. Her patterns of MDI use in the last two months and the bronchospasm […]
Asthma: Causes and Mechanisms The enlargement of the dense oesinophilic line near the bronchus/airways causes the individual to wheeze and gasp for air. The drugs are mainly used in the rapid opening of the bronchus to enable airflow into […]
Healthcare: Childhood Asthma and the Risk Factors in Australia From the findings presented above, it is evident that childhood asthma remains a considerable burden in Australia due to socioeconomic, geographic, and health-related issues such as deprived neighbourhoods, decreasing sun exposure and increasing latitude, and […]
Intubation and Mechanical Ventilation of the Asthmatic Patient in Respiratory The title of the article gives a clear idea of the research question to be investigated. The authors have detailed the processes of intubation and mechanical ventilation in patients with acute asthma.
Asthma Environmental Causes This essay discusses the measures that can be taken to mitigate environmental causes of asthma. In the US, the government has developed a comprehensive strategy to mitigate environmental causes of asthmatic conditions in children.
Asthma’s Diagnosis and Treatment The complete occlusion of the airway can lead to growth of a distal at the atelectasis in the lung parenchyma. The level of AHR is connected to the signs of asthma and the urgency of […]
The Effects Of Asthma On Pregnant African Americans
Urban Children and Asthma Care Barriers
Asthma: Asthma and Nocturnal Asthma
The Health Problem of Asthma in the United States of America
Asthma: Chronic Inflamatory Obstructive Lung Disease
Asthma and Food-Allergy Reactions
Asthma And Exercise Asthmatic Asthmatics Breathing
Automobile Emissions, Co And Asthma
Asthma Control and Treatment in Racial and Ethnic Minorities
Asthma Is The Most Common Chronic Disease Of The Airways
Inflammatory Mediators Of Asthma And Histamines Biology
The Impact of Asthma on the Respiratory System, Its Causes, and Treatment
How Asthma Affects The Airway And Lungs
Diet and Nutrition for Asthma in a Child
Urban Asthma And The Neighborhood Environment
Asthma And Its Pathophysiological Structure
The Effects of Medication on the Increased Performance of Asthma Patients
What Parents Need To Know About Asthma
Employment Behaviors of Mothers Who have a Child with Asthma
The Genetic and Environmental Components of Asthma
The Influence of Asthma on the Lives of Students
Children’s Elevated Risk of Asthma in Unmarried Families: Underlying Structural and Behavioral Mechanisms
The Effects Of Environmental Tobacco Smoke Among Children With Asthma
The Effects Of Air Pollution On Children ‘s Asthma Emergency
Is Improper Use Of The Inhaler Related To Poor Asthma Control
Asthma Symptoms, Diagnosis, Management & Treatment
Limitations From Suffering Chronic Asthma
Causes And Effect Of Allergies And Asthma
Describe The Main Limitations Suffered By Those With Chronic Asthma
The Symptoms, Causes and Diagnosis of Asthma
Negligent: Asthma and Nursing Interventions
The Signs, Causes and What Triggers Asthma
The Routine Care for Patients with Coronary Heart Disease, Asthma, Stroke, Irritable Bowel Syndrome, Urinary Tract Infections, Diabetes, and Cervical Cancer
The Role Of Nurse Management Asthma And School Health Program
The Scope of Asthma in the General Population and on the Health Care System
The Most Effective Treatment for an Asthma Exacerbation
Pathophysiology Of Chronic Asthma And Acute Asthma
The Use Of Vitamin D Asthmatic Children Effectiveness Of Vitamin Supplements In Childhood Asthma
The Ways in Which the Symptoms of Asthma Can Be Reduced
Measures to Minimize Environmental Causes of Asthma
Inner City Adult Asthma Patients and Risk Factors
Raising Awareness to Prevent the Rise of Asthma
Planning and Intervention in the Disease Process of Childhood Asthma
The Anatomy And Physiology Of Respiratory System And The Diagnosis Of Asthma
The Causes and Effects of Asthma Sufferers
The Application of Corticosteroids in the Management of Bronchial Asthma
Salbutamol: History of Development in Asthma Drug Compounds
Sensitization To Plant Food Allergens In Patients With Asthma
The Diagnosis and Treatment of Otitis Media and Asthma
The Discrepancy between Asthma Cases in Minority and White Communities
The Chronic Illness in Children Known as Asthma
Does Childhood Asthma Improve With Age?
What Are the First Warning Signs of Asthma?
Which Child Is at Greatest Risk for Asthma?
What Is the Genetic Predisposition of Asthma?
Can Occupational Therapy Help With Asthma?
How to Ventilate Obstructive and Asthmatic Patients?
What Is a Risk Factor Associated With Childhood Asthma?
What Type of Approach Is Used in Asthma Management?
What Is the Difference Between Asthma and Acute Asthma?
What Are the Pharmacological Treatment of Asthma?
How Is Asthma Diagnosed?
Can Asthma During Pregnancy Affect Baby?
What Are the Three Mechanisms Involved in Asthma?
How Does Genetics and Environment Affect Asthma?
How Long Does It Take To Recover From Asthma Exacerbation?
What Factors Influence the Development of Asthma?
What Is the Physiological Cause of Asthma?
What Are the Statistics on Asthma in Australia?
What Is the Most Serious Type of Asthma?
What Ethnic Group Is Especially Likely to Have Childhood Asthma?
What Is a Nursing Care Plan of an Asthmatic Patient?
Does Asthma Cause Smooth Muscle Hypertrophy?
Should People With Asthma Use a Humidifier?
What Is Mechanical Ventilation Asthma?
What Is the Most Common Allergen to Trigger Asthma?
What Is the Main Physiological Cause of Asthma?
What Percent of Asthma Is Caused by Smoking?
How Long Does the Average Person With Asthma Live?
Which Drug Is Safe for Asthma in Pregnancy?
How Many People With Asthma Still Smoke?
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Continuing Education Activity

Asthma is a chronic inflammatory respiratory condition characterized by hallmark symptoms of intermittent dyspnea, cough, and wheezing. However, due to the nonspecific nature of these symptoms, distinguishing asthma from other respiratory illnesses can sometimes be challenging. A confirmed diagnosis of asthma relies on consistent respiratory symptoms and the identification of variable expiratory airflow obstruction documented on spirometry. Clinicians prioritize symptom control and prevention of future exacerbations through tailored treatment, considering symptom frequency, severity, and potential risks in a step-wise approach. Early recognition and intervention of asthma exacerbations are crucial to prevent the progression of asthma to severe, life-threatening stages. Fatalities related to asthma highlight missed opportunities in recognizing disease severity and escalating therapy, emphasizing the critical role of continual patient education and routine symptom control assessment for successful long-term management.

The development of asthma, often presenting in childhood, involves a complex interplay of genetic and environmental factors associated with atopy. Researchers strive to develop predictive systems for identifying individuals at risk of continued symptoms into adulthood. Despite significant advancements in understanding the underlying genetic loci, environmental triggers, and risk factors, clinical strategies remain lacking to mitigate the risks of persistent asthma development into adolescence and adulthood. This activity covers the epidemiology, pathophysiology, and assessment of asthma, along with initiating pharmacological treatment and developing monitoring strategies tailored for adolescents and adults. These strategies closely align with evidence-based recommendations from the National Asthma Education and Prevention Program and the Global Initiative for Asthma.

Identify the hallmark symptoms of asthma, including dyspnea, cough, and wheezing.
Implement evidence-based treatment strategies for asthma management, considering individual patient characteristics and preferences.
Assess asthma severity, control, and exacerbation risk regularly during follow-up visits.
Collaborate with interdisciplinary healthcare team members to optimize asthma care and patient outcomes.
Introduction

Asthma is a prevalent chronic inflammatory respiratory condition affecting millions of people worldwide and presents substantial challenges in both diagnosis and management. This respiratory condition is characterized by inflammation of the airways, causing intermittent airflow obstruction and bronchial hyperresponsiveness. The hallmark asthma symptoms include coughing, wheezing, and shortness of breath, which can be frequently exacerbated by triggers ranging from allergens to viral infections. The prevalence and severity of asthma are determined by a complex interplay between genetic and environmental factors. Despite treatment advancements, disparities persist in asthma care, with variations in access to diagnosis, treatment, and patient education across different demographics.

The development of asthma, often presenting in childhood, is associated with other atopic features, such as eczema and hay fever. [1] [2] [3] Severity varies from intermittent symptoms to life-threatening airway closure. Healthcare professionals establish a definitive diagnosis through patient history, physical examination, pulmonary function testing, and appropriate laboratory testing. Spirometry with a post-bronchodilator response (BDR) is the primary diagnostic test. Treatment focuses on providing continued education, routine symptom assessment, access to fast-acting bronchodilators, and appropriate controller medications tailored to disease severity.

Asthma manifests with diverse phenotypes, likely influenced by intricate interactions between genetic and environmental factors. [4] [5] Genomewide association studies have linked childhood-onset asthma to markers near the ORMDL sphingolipid biosynthesis regulator 3 ( ORMDL3 ) and gasdermin B ( GSDMB ) genes on chromosome 17q21, encoding ORM1-like protein 3 and gasdermin-like protein. [6] Other associations include genes such as interleukin-33 ( IL33 ), IL-1 receptor-like 1 ( IL1R1 ) genes, and a novel susceptibility locus at the IF-inducible protein X ( PYHIN1 ) gene, particularly affecting individuals of African descent. [7]

The EVE Consortium also identifies a susceptibility locus for thymic stromal lymphopoietin ( TSLP ), an epithelial cell–derived cytokine implicated in asthma-related inflammation initiation. [8] Asthma patients exhibit higher TSLP expression in their airways compared to healthy controls. Additional genetic loci involved in asthma include major histocompatibility complex class II DQ α1 ( HLA-DQA1 ), HLA-DQB1 antisense RNA 1 ( HLA-DQB1 ), Toll-like receptor 1 ( TLR1 ), IL-6 receptor ( IL6R ), zona pellucida-binding protein 2 ( ZPBP2 ), and gasdermin A ( GSDMA ).

Genetics may also be pivotal in asthma treatment. The hydroxy-δ-5-steroid dehydrogenase, 3-beta- and steroid δ-isomerase 1 ( HSD3B1 ) genotype is associated with glucocorticoid resistance among patients. In addition, single-nucleotide polymorphisms in protein kinase cGMP-dependent 1 ( PRKG1 ) and SPATA13 antisense RNA 1 ( SPATA13-AS1 ) are associated with BDR in Black children. [9]

Differing concordance rates among monozygotic twins suggest that exposure to environmental factors has an essential role in the development of asthma. Specific alleles have different effects depending on the environmental exposures. For example, exposure to secondhand smoke associates variations in the N -acetyltransferase 1 ( NAT1 ) gene with the development of asthma in children. A study involving 983 children with single-nucleotide polymorphisms related to ORMDL3 and GSDMB at chromosome locus 17q21 reveals that the same genotype poses genetic risk while also offering environmental protection. [10]

Risk Factors

Risk factors for asthma development encompass exposures throughout a patient's lifespan, including the perinatal period. The most substantial known risk factor is atopy, which is characterized by the genetic tendency to produce specific immunoglobulin E (IgE) antibodies in response to common environmental allergens. Nearly one-third of children with atopy will develop asthma later in life.

Prenatal and Perinatal Factors

Prematurity is the most crucial risk factor influencing asthma incidence during this period. [11] [12] [13] [14] Preterm birth, occurring before 36 weeks, is associated with an elevated risk of asthma throughout childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. Researchers posit that impaired lung development in preterm infants, even in those without early respiratory complications, increases the long-term risk of asthma. [15] Exposure to maternal smoking during pregnancy causes diminished pulmonary function in newborns and an increased probability of developing childhood asthma. Moreover, smoking during pregnancy correlates with several adverse pregnancy outcomes, including premature delivery, further elevating the asthma risk.

The incidence of childhood asthma increases with a maternal age of 20 or younger and decreases with a maternal age of 30 or older. Maternal diet during pregnancy holds significance, with researchers suggesting that vitamin D deficiency contributes to early-life wheezing and asthma primarily by impacting the immune function of various cell types, notably dendritic and T regulatory cells. Additionally, vitamin D plays a role in fetal lung development. [16] [17] Although some studies present conflicting findings regarding the association between maternal vitamin D levels and childhood asthma, a meta-analysis of 2 large studies indicates that maternal vitamin D intake offers protection against wheezing or asthma in offspring up to the age of 3. [16]

The Copenhagen Prospective Studies on Asthma in Childhood (COPSAC2010) reveals that 17% of children born to mothers with diets high in omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids developed persistent wheeze or asthma during the first 3 years of life compared to nearly 24% in the group with diets high in omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids. Vitamins E and C and zinc may also have protective effects. Administering vitamin C at a dose of 500 mg/d to pregnant mothers appears to offer protection against the harmful effects of tobacco exposure. Offspring of mothers who receive vitamin C supplementation exhibit a wheezing incidence of 28%, while those without vitamin C supplementation have a higher incidence of 47%. [18] [19]

Wheezing caused by viral infections, particularly respiratory syncytial virus and human rhinovirus, may predispose infants and young children to develop asthma later in life. In addition, early-life exposure to air pollution, including combustion by-products from gas-fired appliances and indoor fires, obesity, and early puberty, also increases the risk of asthma.

The most significant risk factors for adult-onset asthma include tobacco smoke, occupational exposure, and adults with rhinitis or atopy. Studies also suggest a modest increase in asthma incidence among postmenopausal women taking hormone replacement therapy.

Furthermore, the following factors can contribute to asthma and airway hyperreactivity:

Exposure to environmental allergens such as house dust mites, animal allergens (especially from cats and dogs), cockroach allergens, and fungi
Physical activity or exercise
Conditions such as hyperventilation, gastroesophageal reflux disease, and chronic sinusitis
Hypersensitivity to aspirin or nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), as well as sulfite sensitivity
Use of β-adrenergic receptor blockers, including ophthalmic preparations
Exposure to irritants such as household sprays and paint fumes
Contact with various high- and low-molecular-weight compounds found in insects, plants, latex, gums, diisocyanates, anhydrides, wood dust, and solder fluxes, which are associated with occupational asthma
Emotional factors or stress

Aspirin-Exacerbated Respiratory Disease

Aspirin-exacerbated respiratory disease (AERD) is a condition characterized by a combination of asthma, chronic rhinosinusitis with nasal polyposis, and NSAID intolerance. Patients with AERD present with upper and lower respiratory tract symptoms after ingesting aspirin or NSAIDs that inhibit cyclooxygenase-1 (COX-1). This condition arises from dysregulated arachidonic acid metabolism and the overproduction of leukotrienes involving the 5-lipoxygenase and cyclooxygenase pathways. AERD affects approximately 7% of adults with asthma.

Occupational-Induced Asthma

Two types of occupational asthma exist based on their appearance after a latency period:

Occupational asthma triggered by workplace sensitizers results from an allergic or immunological process associated with a latency period induced by both low- and high-molecular-weight agents. High-molecular-weight substances, such as flour, contain proteins and polysaccharides of plant or animal origin. Low-molecular-weight substances, like formaldehyde, form a sensitizing neoantigen when combined with a human protein.
Occupational asthma caused by irritants involves a nonallergic or nonimmunological process induced by gases, fumes, smoke, and aerosols.
Epidemiology

The worldwide incidence of asthma is estimated to affect 260 million individuals. [20] Recent studies examining asthma prevalence across 17 countries reveal varying rates, ranging from 3.4% to 6% for adults and children in India, Taiwan, Kosovo, Nigeria, and Russia, and higher rates of 17% to 33% for Honduras, Costa Rica, Brazil, and New Zealand. [21] Despite data showing the death rate consistently declining for asthma between 2001 and 2015, asthma continues to account for approximately 420,000 deaths per year. [22] Factors such as under-prescription of inhaled glucocorticoids and limited access to emergency medical care or specialist care all play a role in asthma-related deaths.

Asthma prevalence in the United States differs among demographic groups, including age, gender, race, and socioeconomic status. The United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) estimates that around 25 million Americans are currently affected by asthma. Among individuals younger than 18, boys exhibit a higher prevalence compared to girls, while among adults, women are more commonly affected than men. Additionally, asthma prevalence is notably higher among Black individuals, with a prevalence of 10.1%, compared to White individuals at 8.1%. Hispanic Americans generally have a lower prevalence of 6.4%, except for those from Puerto Rico, where the prevalence rises to 12.8%. Moreover, underrepresented minorities and individuals living below the poverty line experience the highest incidence of asthma, along with heightened rates of asthma-related morbidity and mortality.

Similar to worldwide data, the mortality rate of asthma in the United States has also undergone a consistent decline. The current mortality rate is 9.86 per million compared to 15.09 per million in 2001. However, mortality rates remain consistently higher for Black patients compared to their White counterparts. According to the CDC, from 1999 to 2016, asthma death rates among adults aged 55 to 64 were 16.32 per 1 million persons, 9.95 per 1 million for females, 9.39 per 1 million for individuals who were not Hispanic or Latino, and notably higher at 25.60 per 1 million for Black patients.

Pathophysiology

Asthma is a syndrome characterized by diverse underlying mechanisms and involves intricate interactions among inflammatory and resident airway cells. These mechanisms lead to airway inflammation, intermittent airflow obstruction, and bronchial hyperresponsiveness (see Image. Pathophysiology of Asthma).

Airway Inflammation

The activation of mast cells by cytokines and other mediators plays a pivotal role in the development of clinical asthma. Following initial allergen inhalation, affected patients produce specific IgE antibodies due to an overexpression of the T-helper 2 subset (Th2) of lymphocytes relative to the Th1 type. Cytokines produced by Th2 lymphocytes include IL-4, IL-5, and IL-13, which promote IgE and eosinophilic responses in atopy. Once produced, these specific IgE antibodies bind to receptors on mast cells and basophils. Upon additional allergen inhalation, allergen-specific IgE antibodies on the mast cell surface undergo cross-linking, leading to rapid degranulation and the release of histamine, prostaglandin D2 (PGD2), and cysteinyl leukotrienes C4 (LTC4), D4 (LTD4), and E4 (LTE4). [23] [24] This triggers contraction of the airway smooth muscle within minutes and may stimulate reflex neural pathways. Subsequently, an influx of inflammatory cells, including monocytes, dendritic cells, neutrophils, T lymphocytes, eosinophils, and basophils, may lead to delayed bronchoconstriction several hours later.

Airflow Obstruction

The narrowing of the airway lumen throughout the tracheobronchial tree is caused by the contraction of airway smooth muscle, thickening of the airway wall due to edema, mucus plugging in the airways, and airway remodeling, which collectively contributes to varying levels of airflow obstruction.

Mediators such as histamine and leukotrienes, released from inflammatory cells or through reflex neural pathways, trigger the contraction and relaxation of airway smooth muscle. The precise mechanism leading to airway hyperresponsiveness, characterized by an excessive tightening of the airway's smooth muscles in response to various physical, chemical, or environmental triggers, remains unclear. Some researchers propose alterations in breathing patterns where smooth muscles contract excessively or fail to relax adequately during deep breaths as a potential explanation.

Airway remodeling, which involves thickening of the basement membrane, deposition of collagen, and shedding of epithelial cells, can lead to irreversible changes in the airways. This process accelerates the decline in lung function, particularly in individuals with severe and early-onset asthma. [25] In addition, remodeling contributes to the heightened bronchial sensitivity observed in asthma.

Arachidonic acid metabolism by the enzyme 5-lipoxygenase (5-LO) leads to the generation of leukotrienes, which serve as potent bronchoconstrictors. The metabolism of arachidonic acid by the 2 cyclooxygenase (COX) isoforms—COX-1 and COX-2—generates prostaglandins and thromboxanes. PGD2 is a potent bronchodilator, while PGE2 suppresses the production of leukotrienes. Patients with AERD have dysregulated arachidonic acid metabolism, causing decreased production of PGE2 and loss of control of leukotriene production. [26]

Patients with occupational-induced asthma can undergo an immunologically mediated response similar to those without occupational-induced asthma. Alternatively, others may present with nonimmunological occupational asthma. The possible underlying mechanisms of the nonimmunological form are denudation of the airway epithelium, direct β-2 adrenergic receptor inhibition, or elaboration of substance P by injured sensory nerves.

History and Physical

The 4 cardinal symptoms associated with asthma are wheezing, cough (often worse at night), shortness of breath, and chest tightness. Individuals may experience 1 or more of these symptoms. Asthma symptoms typically occur intermittently, lasting for hours to days, and resolve upon the removal of triggers or the administration of asthma medications. Nighttime exacerbation of symptoms or onset triggered by exercise, cold air, or allergen exposure suggests asthma. In contrast to exertional dyspnea, which manifests shortly after beginning exertion and resolves within 5 minutes of cessation, exercise-induced asthma symptoms typically emerge around 15 minutes into activity and dissipate within 30 to 60 minutes afterward. Patients may also have a history of other forms of atopy, such as eczema and hay fever.

During patient history-taking, healthcare professionals should inquire about particular triggers that exacerbate symptoms. Common household triggers include dust, animals, and infestations of rodents and cockroaches. Some individuals may experience intermittent asthma symptoms related to their work shifts. A strong family history of asthma and allergies, or a personal history of atopic conditions and childhood asthma symptoms, suggests asthma in patients exhibiting suggestive symptoms.

Physical Examination

During physical examination, widespread, high-pitched wheezes are a characteristic finding associated with asthma. However, wheezing is not specific to asthma and is typically absent between acute exacerbations. Findings suggestive of a severe asthma exacerbation include tachypnea, tachycardia, a prolonged expiratory phase, reduced air movement, difficulty speaking in complete sentences or phrases, discomfort when lying supine due to breathlessness, and adopting a "tripod position." [27] The use of the accessory muscles of breathing during inspiration and pulsus paradoxus are additional indicators of a severe asthma attack.

Healthcare professionals may identify extrapulmonary findings that support the diagnosis of asthma, such as pale, boggy nasal mucous membranes, posterior pharyngeal cobblestoning, nasal polyps, and atopic dermatitis. Nasal polyps should prompt further inquiry about anosmia, chronic sinusitis, and aspirin sensitivity to evaluate for AERD. Although AERD is uncommon in children or adolescents, the presence of nasal polyps in a child with lower respiratory disease should prompt an evaluation for cystic fibrosis. Clubbing, characterized by bulbous fusiform enlargement of the distal portion of a digit, is not associated with asthma and should prompt evaluation for alternative diagnoses. Please see StatPearls' companion resource, " Nail Clubbing ," for further information.

Intermittent symptoms consistent with asthma, in addition to wheezing observed during physical examination, strongly indicate asthma. Confirming the diagnosis involves the exclusion of alternative diagnoses and a demonstration of variable airflow limitation, usually seen in spirometry.

Spirometry assesses forced expiratory volume in 1 second (FEV 1 ) and forced vital capacity (FVC) by measuring a maximal inhalation followed by rapid and forceful exhalation into a spirometer. Asthma typically presents as an obstructive pattern on spirometry, indicated by a reduced FEV 1 to FVC ratio. [28] Additionally, a visual examination of the expiratory flow-volume loop can reveal an obstructive pattern. A scooped, concave appearance in the expiratory portion of the flow-volume loop indicates diffuse intrathoracic airflow obstruction characterizes asthma. In rare cases where complete exhalation is impossible, the FEV 1 /FVC ratio may appear normal, falsely suggesting a restrictive pattern if not assessed along with flow-time curves.

Patients showing airflow limitations on spirometry receive 2 to 4 puffs of a short-acting bronchodilator like albuterol, followed by repeat spirometry in 10 to 15 minutes. According to the European Respiratory Society/American Thoracic Society guidelines, a positive BDR is determined by a change in FEV 1 or FVC compared to their predicted value. Clinicians calculate the patient's BDR using the formula:

BDR=([Post-bronchodilator value – Pre-bronchodilator value] × 100) / Predicted value of either FEV 1 or FVC

Increases exceeding 10% are considered significant. [28]

According to the Global Initiative for Asthma, a significant BDR is indicated by an increase in the FEV 1 of 12% or 200 mL or more. In addition, the slow vital capacity, or the maximal amount of air exhaled in a relaxed expiration from full inspiration to residual volume over 15 seconds, may also be helpful when the FVC is reduced and airway obstruction is present. During slow exhalation, airway narrowing is less pronounced, and the patient can produce a larger vital capacity. In cases of restrictive disease, both slow and fast exhalations result in reduced vital capacity.

Spirometry results may be normal in asymptomatic individuals or those with cough-variant asthma. Bronchodilator responsiveness is evident in asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), cystic fibrosis, non-cystic fibrosis bronchiectasis, and bronchiolitis. However, patients with asthma may yield false negative results if they are on chronic controller medications, exhibit underlying airway remodeling, have minimal symptoms during testing, or have recently used bronchodilators before the test. Ideally, clinicians should conduct baseline spirometry before commencing treatment. [29] [30]

Bronchoprovocation Testing

During bronchoprovocation testing, clinicians induce bronchoconstriction using inhaled methacholine or mannitol, exercise, or eucapnic hyperventilation of dry air. This testing method can be beneficial for patients presenting with atypical symptoms or an isolated cough. Patients receive incremental doses of the provocative agent followed by spirometry to generate a dose-response curve. A fall in FEV 1 of 20% or more from baseline with the standard dose of methacholine or a decline of 15% or more with the standard dose of hypertonic saline, mannitol, or hyperventilation indicates a positive test. [31] Clinicians may also conduct additional provocative testing using exercise, aspirin, and exposure to environmental triggers encountered in the workplace.

Peak Flow Meter

Although consistent reductions of 20% during symptomatic periods, followed by a gradual return to baseline as symptoms resolve, indicate asthma, clinicians typically use peak flow measurement to monitor patients with known asthma rather than for initial diagnosis. To measure peak flow, the patient takes a maximal breath and seals the peak flow meter between their lips before blowing forcefully for 1 to 2 seconds. Please see StatPearls' companion resource, " Peak Flow Measurement ," for additional information regarding peak flow measurement and its clinical significance in the evaluation and management of asthma.

Patients repeat this process 3 times, recording the highest reading as the current peak flow measurement. Patients can compare their recorded values to established graphs based on age and height for adults and height for adolescents to determine their predicted value. Notably, reduced peak flow values are not specific to asthma. Patients with either an obstructive or restrictive pattern on spirometry can have decreased peak flow values. Additionally, the accuracy of results is highly contingent on patient effort.

Exhaled Nitric Oxide

Eosinophilic airway inflammation causes an upregulation of nitric oxide synthase in the respiratory mucosa, leading to elevated nitric oxide levels in exhaled breath. In certain asthma patients, the fractional exhaled nitric oxide (FE NO ) surpasses levels observed in individuals without asthma. A FE NO of measurement exceeding 40 to 50 ppb can aid in confirming an asthma diagnosis.

Pulse Oximetry

Pulse oximetry can help assess the severity of an asthma attack or monitor for deterioration. Notably, pulse oximetry measurements may exhibit a lag, and the physiological reserve of many patients implies that a declining oxygen level on pulse oximetry is a late stage, indicating an increasingly unwell or peri-arrest patient.

No specific laboratory tests are necessary for diagnosing asthma. However, patients who present with a severe asthma exacerbation should undergo a complete blood count to evaluate eosinophil levels and check for anemia, which may be the underlying cause of the patient's dyspnea. A significantly elevated eosinophil count should prompt further investigation for conditions, including parasitic infections such as Strongyloides , drug reactions, and syndromes characterized by pulmonary infiltrates with eosinophilia. These syndromes include allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis, eosinophilic granulomatosis with polyangiitis, and hypereosinophilic syndrome (see Image. Allergic Bronchopulmonary Aspergillosis on CT Scan).

Non-smoking patients who present with irreversible airflow obstruction should undergo serum α1-antitrypsin level testing to rule out emphysema caused by homozygous α1-antitrypsin deficiency. Allergy testing may prove beneficial for patients experiencing symptoms upon exposure to specific allergens. Clinicians should obtain total serum IgE levels in patients with moderate-to-severe persistent asthma, particularly when considering treatment with anti-IgE monoclonal antibodies or when there is suspicion of allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis. Please refer to the Treatment/Management section for further details on anti-IgE monoclonal antibodies.

Chest radiographs in asthma patients are often normal; however, during acute exacerbations, abnormal findings such as hyperinflation, pneumomediastinum, and bronchial thickening may be observed (see Image. A Chest Radiograph Depicting Asthma). A chest radiograph is recommended for patients aged 40 or older with new-onset, moderate-to-severe asthma to rule out conditions that can mimic asthma, such as a mediastinal mass with tracheal compression or heart failure.

Additional indications for chest radiography include patients experiencing symptoms that are difficult to control, fever, chronic purulent sputum production, persistently localized wheezing, hemoptysis, weight loss, clubbing, inspiratory crackles, significant hypoxemia, and moderate or severe airflow obstruction that does not reverse with bronchodilators. High-resolution computed tomography is necessary to clarify any abnormalities noted on chest radiographs or for patients with other suspected conditions that may not be well visualized on routine radiographs.

Evaluation During an Acute Exacerbation

Each patient should undergo a rapid assessment of their vital signs, including oxygen saturation. Measuring the peak flow can indicate the severity of the exacerbation and monitor the response to therapy. Predicted peak flow measurements vary based on age and height; however, a peak flow below 200 L/min indicates severe obstruction except in patients aged 65 or older or with very short stature. A peak flow measurement below 50% predicted or the patient's personal best is considered severe, while between 50% and 70% is considered moderate. Chest radiographs are not uniformly necessary unless the diagnosis of acute asthma exacerbation is uncertain, the patient requires hospitalization, or evidence of a comorbid condition is present.

Identification of Patients at Risk of Fatal or Near-Fatal Asthma

Most asthma-related deaths are preventable if risk factors are identified and addressed early. Major risk factors that place patients at high risk for future fatal asthma exacerbations include:

A recent history of poorly controlled asthma
A prior history of near-fatal asthma
A history of endotracheal intubation for asthma
A history of intensive care unit admission for asthma

Minor risk factors include exposure to aeroallergens and tobacco smoke, illicit drug use, older patients, aspirin sensitivity, long duration of asthma, and frequent hospitalizations for asthma-related issues.

Treatment / Management

Patient Education

Multiple sources of patient education are available. According to the National Asthma Education and Prevention Program's Expert Panel Report 3: Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Asthma, personalized education from the patient's primary clinician is especially impactful. Studies reveal that such education reduces the number of asthma exacerbations and hospitalizations. Healthcare professionals should provide culturally specific asthma education that includes understanding asthma and its symptoms, identifying the patient's specific triggers, and strategies for their avoidance. Each patient should understand how to properly use an inhaler and be familiar with medications that serve as rescue options, those used for symptom control, and those that may fulfill both roles. Clinicians should inquire about any obstacles hindering medication adherence and work collaboratively with patients to overcome concerns or barriers, thus enhancing overall adherence.

Although the data on effectiveness are limited, a general consensus among experts exists that individuals with asthma should possess a personalized "action plan" to follow at home (please refer to the link to an action plan download in the Deterrence and Patient Education section). This action plan provides a structured maintenance medication regimen and delineates steps to take when symptoms exacerbate. Clinicians develop an action plan based on symptoms or peak flow readings and divide it into 3 zones—green, yellow, and red.

Patients in the green zone are asymptomatic, with peak flows at 80% or higher than their personal best. They feel well and continue with their long-term control medication. Peak flow readings falling within the yellow zone range between 50% and 79% of the patient's personal best, accompanied by symptoms such as coughing, wheezing, and shortness of breath, which begin to interfere with activity levels. In the red zone, patients experience peak flow readings below 50% of their best, severe shortness of breath, and an inability to perform everyday activities.

Asthma Severity

Guidelines established by the National Asthma Education and Prevention Program (NAEPP) and the Global Initiative for Asthma (GINA) determine therapy based on the frequency and severity of asthma symptoms, the degree of respiratory impairment, and the risk of future exacerbations. Risk factors contributing to future exacerbations include frequent asthma symptoms, a history of intensive care unit admission for asthma, obesity, poor medication adherence, chronic rhinosinusitis, and a low FEV 1 . The severity categories and treatment guidelines vary based on age. This activity will address asthma severity and management in adolescents and adults aged 12 or older. Please see StatPearls' companion resource, " Pediatric Asthma ," for additional information regarding the treatment of asthma in infants and children.

Every patient should have access to a bronchodilator with a rapid onset of action. Traditionally, this has been a short-acting β-agonist (SABA) such as albuterol. However, GINA recommends a low-dose glucocorticoid/formoterol inhaler, such as 80 to 160 mcg budesonide/4.5 mcg formoterol inhaled by mouth 1 or 2 times daily, for asthma symptoms. Notably, this is an off-label indication for this preparation.

Treatment progresses in a stepwise manner, with the highest severity category in which the patient experiences any symptoms, designating the treatment category from which the patient receives treatment (see Image. Asthma Severity Classification by National Asthma Education and Prevention Program). Tables 1 and 2 below include the NAEPP and GINA asthma severity classifications and treatment initiation guidelines based on the patient's symptoms and lung function.

Table 1. National Asthma Education and Prevention Program: Expert Panel Working Group Initial Asthma Therapy in Adolescents and Adults.

Abbreviations: FEV 1 , forced expiratory volume in 1 second; ICS, inhaled corticosteroid; LABA, long-acting β-agonist; LAMA, long-acting muscarinic antagonist; LTRA, leukotriene receptor antagonist; SABA, short-acting β-agonist.

Table 2. Global Initiative for Asthma Initial Asthma Therapy in Adolescents and Adults.

Abbreviations: ICS, inhaled corticosteroid; LABA, long-acting β-agonist; LAMA, long-acting muscarinic antagonist; LTRA, leukotriene receptor antagonist; OCS, oral corticosteroid; SABA, short-acting β-agonist.

Routine follow-up every 1 to 6 months is necessary to ensure adequate symptom management. Upon reevaluation, patients facing inadequate asthma symptom management, exacerbations necessitating systemic glucocorticoids, or those at high risk of exacerbation on their current therapy level should escalate to the next level of therapy. Therapy adjustments proceed incrementally until symptoms are adequately managed. After maintaining control for 3 to 6 months, clinicians may consider gradual therapy reduction following the stepwise protocols outlined by GINA or NAEPP guidelines.

Severe Asthma

Adults and adolescents with severe asthma that remains uncontrolled despite Step 4 recommended therapy should receive a LAMA, such as tiotropium, alongside their inhaled glucocorticoid and LABA regimen. Clinicians should direct these patients for phenotypic assessment and consideration for biological therapy options. Anti-IgE monoclonal antibody therapy with omalizumab may be helpful for those still experiencing inadequate control and possessing documented sensitivity to a perennial allergy with IgE levels ranging between 30 and 700 IU/mL.

Patients with severe eosinophilic asthma who are not adequately controlled can utilize mepolizumab and reslizumab, monoclonal antibodies against IL-5, benralizumab, a monoclonal antibody against the IL-5 receptor α-subunit, and dupilumab a monoclonal antibody against the IL-4 receptor α-subunit. Tezepelumab is a human monoclonal IgG2-λ antibody that binds to TSLP, preventing its interaction with the TSLP receptor complex. [32]

Acute Exacerbation

Patients experiencing an acute asthma exacerbation may manage symptoms at home or need urgent medical care depending on their symptom severity and risk factors for fatal asthma. These risk factors include prior life-threatening exacerbations, exacerbations despite glucocorticoid use, more than 1 asthma-related hospitalization or 3 emergency room visits in the past year, and comorbidities such as cardiovascular or chronic lung disease. Immediate medical attention is warranted for patients showing significant breathlessness, inability to speak beyond short phrases, reliance on accessory muscles, or peak flow measurements at 50% or less of their baseline measurement.

All patients require a fast-acting β-agonist. Potential options include the LABA formoterol combined with ICS, the SABA albuterol combined with budesonide, or albuterol alone. Combination with ICS is the preferred choice. Albuterol dosing is 2 to 4 puffs from a metered dose inhaler (MDI) at home and 4 to 8 puffs in the office with a valved holding chamber or spacer every 20 minutes for 1 hour as needed. Albuterol may also be nebulized. ICS-formoterol dosing is 1 to 2 puffs every 20 minutes for 1 hour as required, with a maximum of 8 puffs per day.

Patients whose symptoms improve after administering a bronchodilator and whose peak flow returns to 80% of their baseline or better can continue to manage their symptoms at home. Oral glucocorticoids equivalent to 40 to 60 mg prednisone daily for 5 to 7 days are warranted for the following patients:

Those experiencing recurrent symptoms over the following 1 to 2 days.
Those whose peak flow remains less than 80% of their normal baseline (high-dose ICSs are an alternative).
If they do not improve after 1 to 3 doses of a fast-acting bronchodilator.
If they have recently completed a course in OCS.
Those who are on a maximal dose of controller medications.

Patients with a peak flow value of 50% or lower despite administering a bronchodilator or continuing to worsen should seek immediate medical care while continuing to administer their fast-acting bronchodilator.

Office management is similar to home management, with the addition that according to GINA guidelines, all patients with oxygen saturation below 90% should receive oxygen to maintain saturation above 92% or 95% for pregnant individuals. Albuterol treatment can be administered via an MDI or nebulizer, with a dosage of 4 to 8 puffs or 2.5 to 5 mg every 20 minutes for 1 hour, respectively. Research comparing the efficacy of an MDI combined with a valved-holding chamber to nebulizer delivery, both administering the same β-agonist but with significantly lower doses via MDI, demonstrates similar enhancements in lung function and risk reduction for hospitalization. [33] [34] [35]

If oral glucocorticoids are unavailable, intramuscular steroids such as triamcinolone suspension (40 mg/mL) 60 to 100 mg can be an alternative. However, it is noteworthy that intramuscular glucocorticoids have a delayed onset of action of 12 to 36 hours. Patients meeting certain criteria such as a respiratory rate of 30 breaths per minute, a heart rate of more than 120 bpm, a continued peak flow of less than 50% predicted, oxygen saturation of less than 90%, or the inability to speak in full sentences should be transferred to the emergency department.

Patients who can be sent home from the office should have their controller medications advanced in 1 step. In addition, it is essential to review the correct use of their inhaler, discuss trigger avoidance strategies, ensure they have an asthma action plan, and emphasize the importance of adhering to their controller medication.

Emergency Department Care

Within the first hour, patients should receive 3 treatments of an inhaled SABA, such as albuterol, via a nebulizer or MDI, followed by repeat dosing every 1 to 4 hours. In addition to a SABA, patients with severe asthma exacerbations should also receive inhaled ipratropium, a short-acting muscarinic antagonist (SAMA), at a dosage of 500 µg by nebulization or 4 to 8 puffs by MDI, every 20 minutes for 3 doses, and then hourly as needed for up to 3 hours. Current guidelines recommend discontinuing SAMA therapy once the patient requires hospital admission, except in specific cases such as refractory asthma requiring treatment in the intensive care unit, concurrent treatment with monoamine oxidase inhibitors due to potential increased toxicity from sympathomimetic therapy due to impaired drug metabolism, presence of COPD with an asthmatic component, or asthma triggered by β-blocker therapy.

As with outpatient management, patients also receive glucocorticoids equivalent to 40 to 60 mg of prednisone daily for 5 to 7 days. A systematic review reveals no difference between a higher dose and a longer course when compared to a lower dose with a shorter course of prednisone or prednisolone. [36] Oral and intravenous glucocorticoids have equivalent effects when administered in comparable doses. Intravenous steroids are necessary for patients with impending or actual respiratory arrest or who are intolerant of oral glucocorticoids. Some clinicians administer higher doses of glucocorticoids for severe asthma exacerbations based on their expert opinion and concern that a lower dose might be insufficient in a critically ill patient.

Magnesium sulfate

Per GINA guidelines, magnesium is not recommended for routine use in asthma exacerbations. However, a 1-time dose of 2 g given intravenously over 20 minutes reduces hospitalization rates in adults with an FEV 1 less than 25% to 30% predicted on presentation and in those who fail to respond to initial treatment and continue to have hypoxemia. Nebulized MgSO 4 is not beneficial in the management of an acute asthma exacerbation.

A Cochrane Database review in 2014 concluded that a single infusion of intravenous MgSO 4 for patients not responding to conventional therapy results in improved lung functions and fewer hospital admissions. [37] However, in a recent systematic review, the comparison of the same studies, eliminating those involving children and those containing only abstracts, revealed conflicting results. The review examined the effects of intravenous and nebulized MgSO 4 . Although 3 out of 9 studies addressing treatment with intravenous MgSO 4 found a significant effect on lung function compared to placebo, these results are not statistically significant. [38] Only 2 of the 8 studies investigating hospital admission rates reveal a significant effect of MgSO 4 . [38] Conversely, 6 of the 9 studies investigating treatment with nebulized MgSO 4 compared to placebo reveal a favorable effect on the FEV 1 and peak expiratory flow rate. [38] These results somewhat contradict the Cochrane Database review conducted in 2014, which evaluated the same studies. [37]

An additional study reveals a small benefit of adding inhaled magnesium to inhaled albuterol plus ipratropium in reducing hospital admissions but no significant improvement in peak expiratory flow when added to inhaled albuterol plus ipratropium or inhaled albuterol alone. [39]

Intubation or Noninvasive Ventilation

Indications for intubation and mechanical ventilation or noninvasive ventilation include the following:

Slowing of the respiratory rate
Depressed mental status
Inability to maintain respiratory effort
Inability to cooperate with the administration of inhaled medications
Worsening hypercapnia and associated respiratory acidosis
Inability to maintain oxygen saturation above 92% despite face mask supplemental oxygen

A 1- to 2-hour trial of bilevel noninvasive positive pressure ventilation is appropriate for patients with an acute asthma exacerbation, but clinicians should maintain a low threshold for intubation. [40] [41]

Additional Therapies

Occasionally, nonstandard therapies, such as ketamine, halothane, helium-oxygen mixtures, extracorporeal membrane oxygenation, and parenteral terbutaline, can be helpful for certain patients. However, these therapies are not routinely utilized due to limited evidence of efficacy. The indication for parenteral epinephrine is asthma associated with anaphylaxis and angioedema.

All patients who are smokers should be educated on the benefits of smoking cessation and provided with appropriate support and resources. Empiric antibiotics are not recommended since most infections triggering asthma exacerbations are viral. According to both GINA and NAEPP guidelines, intravenous methylxanthines such as theophylline are deemed ineffective and are no longer part of the standard of care. [42]

Differential Diagnosis

The differential diagnoses for asthma include the following conditions:

Bronchiectasis
Bronchiolitis
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
Chronic sinusitis
Cystic fibrosis
α1-antitrypsin deficiency
Aspergillosis
Exercise-induced anaphylaxis
Foreign body aspiration
Heart failure
Gastroesophageal reflux disease
Tracheomalacia
Pulmonary embolism
Pulmonary eosinophilia
Sarcoidosis
Upper respiratory tract infection
Vocal cord dysfunction
Eosinophilic granulomatosis with polyangiitis
Bronchogenic carcinoma
Post-viral tussive syndrome
Eosinophilic bronchitis
Cough induced by angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors
Bordetella pertussis infection
Interstitial lung disease
Recurrent oropharyngeal aspiration

The development and prognosis of asthma involve a complex interplay of genetic and environmental factors. Social determinants of health, such as poor housing quality and indoor and outdoor pollution, profoundly impact asthma prognosis. In the United States, asthma is a chronic illness characterized by a significant racial and ethnic disparity in both prevalence and prognosis. Underrepresented racial and ethnic minorities, as well as individuals living below the poverty line, experience higher morbidity rates, increased emergency room visits, hospitalizations, and mortality due to asthma. [43] [44] Additionally, lack of access to healthcare—whether due to difficulties in accessing clinicians or lack of insurance—further exacerbates prognosis-related challenges.

The international asthma mortality rate reaches as high as 0.86 deaths per 100,000 persons in certain countries. The overall prognosis is predominantly linked to lung function, with mortality rates 8 times higher among individuals in the bottom 25% of lung function. Several factors contribute to a poorer prognosis, including inadequate asthma management, age 40 or older, a history of more than 20 pack-years of cigarette smoking, blood eosinophilia, and FEV1 of 40% to 69% of predicted values

Complications

The complications related to asthma include disease-related complications and adverse effects of glucocorticoids, LTRA, and endotracheal intubation. The following list contains complications associated with asthma:

Decline in lung function
Osteoporosis
Adrenal suppression
Hypertension
Peptic ulcer
Sleep disorders
Obstructive sleep apnea
Mood disorders
Cardiac arrest
Respiratory failure or arrest
Pneumothorax
Aspiration [45]
Consultations

Healthcare professionals should seek consultation with an asthma specialist in pulmonology or allergy when the diagnosis of asthma is uncertain, the patient's symptoms remain poorly controlled, medication adverse effects become intolerable, or the patient experiences frequent exacerbations. Accessing appropriate specialist care aids in excluding alternate diagnoses, determining the need for additional diagnostic testing, and effectively escalating medical therapy.

Deterrence and Patient Education

Patient education plays a pivotal role in the effective management of asthma by clinicians. To deter exacerbations and improve patient outcomes, clinicians should emphasize the importance of adherence to medication regimens, avoidance of triggers, and regular monitoring of symptoms. Educating patients about asthma triggers, such as allergens, air pollution, and tobacco smoke, can empower them to make informed lifestyle choices. Furthermore, clinicians should highlight the significance of having an asthma action plan, which outlines steps to take during worsening symptoms or exacerbations. See the National Heart and Lung Institute's website, " Asthma Action Plan ," for a printable version of an action plan.

Patient education should also prioritize the recognition of early warning signs of an asthma attack and prompt seeking of medical attention when necessary. Routine follow-up visits for patients with active asthma are recommended, occurring every one to six months, contingent on the severity of asthma and adequacy of control. During these follow-up visits, clinicians should assess asthma control, lung function, exacerbations, inhaler technique, adherence, adverse effects of medication, quality of life, and patient satisfaction with care. By instilling a comprehensive understanding of asthma management strategies and fostering proactive patient involvement, clinicians can significantly reduce the burden of asthma and enhance patient well-being.

Enhancing Healthcare Team Outcomes

Asthma is characterized by complex pathophysiology involving airway inflammation, intermittent airflow obstruction, and bronchial hyperresponsiveness. The condition presents various signs and symptoms, such as wheezing, coughing, shortness of breath, and chest tightness. Wheezing may not always be present, particularly in cases primarily affecting small airways, and its absence does not exclude asthma. Additionally, a cough might be the sole symptom, especially one that occurs or worsens at night. Diagnostic evaluation involves spirometry, assessing lung function parameters such as FEV1 and FVC, measuring peak flow, and possibly conducting bronchoprovocation testing in some individuals.

Treatment strategies include trigger avoidance, ensuring access to rescue medications, and personalized pharmacological interventions, with inhaled corticosteroids being the preferred controller medication. Patient education, regular assessment of symptom control, and adherence to treatment plans are crucial components in effectively managing asthma. Adequate patient readiness and preparation, including the development of an asthma action plan, help minimize illness severity and optimize patient outcomes by promoting self-management and reducing healthcare utilization.

Enhancing patient-centered care, outcomes, patient safety, and team performance in asthma management demands a strategic approach. Each healthcare team member should possess the necessary clinical expertise to diagnose and treat asthma effectively, which involves interpreting spirometry findings and customizing treatment plans according to individual patient needs. Adhering to evidence-based guidelines and protocols will ensure uniform practices across healthcare settings.

Effective interprofessional communication enables the exchange of information, collaborative decision-making, and seamless care transitions. Each healthcare team member, including physicians, advanced care practitioners, nurses, pharmacists, respiratory therapists, and social workers, contributes unique skills to asthma care, further enriching interdisciplinary collaboration. By fostering a culture of collaboration, communication, and coordination, healthcare professionals can deliver comprehensive, patient-centered asthma care, decreasing morbidity and mortality and enhancing team performance.

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Pathophysiology of Asthma. Figure A displays the location of the lungs and airways in the body. Figure B shows a cross section of a normal airway. Figure C illustrates a cross section of an airway during asthma symptoms National Institutes of Health

A Chest Radiograph Depicting Asthma. The image depicts both anterior and lateral radiographs of a patient with asthma. The image highlights the presence of pneumomediastinum and increased bronchovascular markings. Contributed by H Shulman, MD

Allergic Bronchopulmonary Aspergillosis on CT Scan. Computed tomography (CT) images reveal bronchiectasis in both upper lobes of a patient with bronchial asthma, indicative of allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis. Contributed by M Salahuddin, MD

Asthma Severity Classification by The National Asthma Education and Prevention Program. Contributed by R Chabra, DO

Disclosure: Muhammad Hashmi declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.

Disclosure: Mary Cataletto declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.

This book is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ ), which permits others to distribute the work, provided that the article is not altered or used commercially. You are not required to obtain permission to distribute this article, provided that you credit the author and journal.

Cite this Page Hashmi MF, Cataletto ME. Asthma. [Updated 2024 May 3]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2024 Jan-.

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Asthma essay full guide: Introduction, outline, examples
Asthma essay introduction. The introduction should begin by grabbing the reader's attention. Use exciting facts or questions related to asthma to help engage the audience in your work. It is also important to provide background information regarding asthma, so readers understand why this topic is essential. Be sure to include reliable data ...
Asthma Essay With Conclusions
Conclusion. In conclusion asthma can be described as a chronic respiratory condition which can be identified by breathing difficulty, wheezing, cough and chest tightness. Narrowing and swelling of the airways and increased mucus production are the major episodes looked for to establish an asthma condition.
Asthma
Inflammation and narrowing of the small airways in the lungs cause asthma symptoms, which can be any combination of cough, wheeze, shortness of breath and chest tightness. Asthma affected an estimated 262 million people in 2019 (1) and caused 455 000 deaths. Inhaled medication can control asthma symptoms and allow people with asthma to lead a ...
PDF Introduction to Asthma
Asthma is one of the most common chronic diseases of childhood, affecting more than 6 million children. Asthma is a chronic inflammatory lung disease that can cause repeated episodes of cough, wheezing and breathing difficulty. During an acute asthma episode, the airway lining in the lungs becomes inflamed and swollen.
Asthma Essay
Asthma is a chronic long term lung disease that inflames and narrows the airways. Asthma causes periods of wheezing, chest tightness, shortness of breath and coughing. Coughing usually occurs at night or early morning, can occur during the day if allergies flares your asthma. The airways are tubes that carry. 1066 Words.
A Comprehensive Exploration of Asthma: [Essay Example], 1260 words
A Comprehensive Exploration of Asthma. Asthma is a chronic lung disease marked by chest tightness, wheezing, breathlessness, and coughing (Dodge & Burrows, 2018). In the United States alone, there are 19 million adults and 6.2 million children living with asthma (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2018).
Asthma: Epidemiological Analysis and Care Plan Essay
Introduction. Asthma is an illness that disproportionately affects many adults and children globally. In 2019, 262 million people had asthma, causing 461 000 deaths (WHO, 2020). Scholars have done asthma-related research to provide information on causes, symptoms, therapies, and asthma mitigation. This study will describe asthma as a chronic ...
PDF What is Asthma?
BASIC FACTS ABOUT ASTHMA. • Asthma is a lung disease. It's a physical and medical problem that needs treatment. It's not something that you imagined or made up. Don't let anyone tell you your asthma is just in your head. It's in your lungs, and it's real. • Asthma is serious. A person can die during an asthma attack.
Essay Examples on Asthma
3 pages / 1303 words. Introduction Asthma is among the life-threatening medical complications that require emergency acute nursing care. Cockcroft (2018, pp. 12-18) categorizes causes of asthma as allergic and non-allergic. Irritants such as dust, smoke, airborne substances, and pollen are allergic causes while non-allergic causes include the ...
Asthma
Asthma is a chronic (long-term) condition that affects the airways in the lungs. The airways are tubes that carry air in and out of your lungs. If you have asthma, your airways can become inflamed and narrowed at times. This makes it harder for air to flow out of your airways when you breathe out. About 1 in 13 people in the United States have ...
Asthma
Definition. Asthma is defined as a chronic inflammatory disease of the airways. The chronic inflammation is associated with airway hyperresponsiveness (an exaggerated airway-narrowing response to specific triggers such as viruses, allergens and exercise) that leads to recurrent episodes of wheezing, breathlessness, chest tightness and/or coughing that can vary over time and in intensity.
Asthma essay full guide: Introduction, outline, examples
Asthma essay full guide: Introduction, outline, examples. This essential guide to writing an asthma essay will help any student master the craft of producing a successful written work. From researching and outlining your ideas on the subject to developing an argument and ensuring the paper is correctly formatted, this article outlines the key ...
Essay about Asthma
Asthma. Breathing is a vital process for every human. Normal breathing is practically effortless for most people, but those with asthma face a great challenge. During an asthma attack, breathing is hampered, making it difficult or even impossible for air to flow through the lungs. Asthma is an increasingly common problem, and has become the ...
PDF Asthma—Level 3 cause
Asthma—Level 3 cause Summary Asthma was responsible for 21·6 million (95% UI 17·1-27·0) DALYs in 2019, which was 20·8% (17·5-24·7) of total DALYs from chronic respiratory disease. Death rates from asthma were highest in countries of low and middle SDI, while prevalence was highest in high SDI countries.
Breathing: A reflection on living with asthma
Dawn Newton, a writer in East Lansing, Michigan, was diagnosed with stage IV lung cancer in November 2012 and has lived with asthma all her life. Her memoir, Winded: A Memoir in Four Stages, will be published in October by Apprentice House Press at Loyola University Maryland. Her blog is at www.dawnmarienewton.com.
Asthma
Introduction. More than 20 million Americans—young and old alike—have asthma,1 a condition that is both common and expensive: Direct medical costs for asthma treatment exceed $9.4 billion.1 Despite availability of effective therapy for controlling asthma, its incidence is increasing;1 nonetheless, asthma continues to be underdiagnosed and undertreated.
Asthma Essay With Conclusions
Conclusion. In conclusion asthma can be described as a chronic respiratory condition which can be identified by breathing difficulty, wheezing, cough and chest tightness. Narrowing and swelling of the airways and increased mucus production are the major episodes looked for to establish an asthma condition.
Learn About Asthma
The more you can learn about asthma, the better you and your loved ones can manage living with this disease, making the most of every day and maintaining a high quality of life. Asthma is a chronic (or lifelong) disease that can be serious—even life-threatening. There is no cure for asthma. The good news is that with proper management, you or ...
Asthma
Primary prevention of asthma has proven challenging, although multifaceted programmes, such as the Finnish Allergy Program 2008-2018, have shown that asthma prevention and reduced burden of disease are achievable. 8 Introduction of asthma-protective environmental microbial exposures, in the form of bacterial lysates or microbial compounds, has yielded promising results.
Asthma: Causes, Pathophysiology, and Treatment
These causes affect how severe the asthma is and its treatment responsiveness. Before 12 years is mainly due to genetic causes, while onset after 12 is mainly due to environmental causes. There are many triggers that may cause asthma. Bronchial asthma triggers may include: Smoking and passive smoking, Perfumes, Allergens such as" food, dust ...
173 Asthma Essay Topic Ideas & Examples
Inflammation's Role in Asthma Development. This work is written in order to study the role of inflammation plays in the development of asthma on the basis of research papers. The Use of Tezspire: The Management of Asthma. The brochure describes the use of Tezspire, which is a drug used for the management of asthma.
Asthma
Asthma is a prevalent chronic inflammatory respiratory condition affecting millions of people worldwide and presents substantial challenges in both diagnosis and management. This respiratory condition is characterized by inflammation of the airways, causing intermittent airflow obstruction and bronchial hyperresponsiveness. The hallmark asthma symptoms include coughing, wheezing, and shortness ...

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Asthma essay full guide: Introduction, outline, examples

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