school lunch thesis

How the quality of school lunch affects students’ academic performance

Subscribe to the brown center on education policy newsletter, michael l. anderson , mla michael l. anderson associate professor of agricultural and resource economics - university of california, berkeley justin gallagher , and jg justin gallagher assistant professor of economics - case western reserve university elizabeth ramirez ritchie err elizabeth ramirez ritchie ph.d. graduate student - university of california-berkeley, department of agricultural and resource economics.

May 3, 2017

In 2010, President Barack Obama signed the Healthy, Hunger-Free Kids Act. The main goal of the law was to raise the minimum nutritional standards for public school lunches served as part of the National School Lunch Program. The policy discussion surrounding the new law centered on the underlying health reasons for offering more nutritious school lunches, in particular, concern over the number of children who are overweight. The Centers for Disease Control estimates that one in five children in the United States is obese.

Surprisingly, the debate over the new law involved very little discussion as to whether providing a more nutritious school lunch could improve student learning. A lengthy medical literature examines the link between diet and cognitive development, and diet and cognitive function. The medical literature focuses on the biological and chemical mechanisms regarding how specific nutrients and compounds are thought to affect physical development (e.g., sight), cognition (e.g., concentration, memory), and behavior (e.g., hyperactivity). Nevertheless, what is lacking in the medical literature is direct evidence on how nutrition impacts educational achievement.

We attempt to fill this gap in a new study that measures the effect of offering healthier public school lunches on end of year academic test scores for public school students in California. The study period covers five academic years (2008-2009 to 2012-2013) and includes all public schools in the state that report test scores (about 9,700 schools, mostly elementary and middle schools). Rather than focus on changes in national nutrition standards, we instead focus on school-specific differences in lunch quality over time. Specifically, we take advantage of the fact that schools can choose to contract with private companies of varying nutritional quality to prepare the school lunches. About 12 percent of California public schools contract with a private lunch company during our study period. School employees completely prepare the meals in-house for 88 percent of the schools.

To determine the quality of different private companies, nutritionists at the Nutrition Policy Institute analyzed the school lunch menus offered by each company. The nutritional quality of the menus was scored using the Healthy Eating Index (HEI). The HEI is a continuous score ranging from zero to 100 that uses a well-established food component analysis to determine how well food offerings (or diets) match the Dietary Guidelines for Americans. The HEI is the Department of Agriculture’s preferred measure of diet quality, and the agency uses it to “examine relationships between diet and health-related outcomes, and to assess the quality of food assistance packages, menus, and the US food supply.” The average HEI score for the U.S. population is 63.8, while the median HEI score in our study is 59.9. In other words, the typical private company providing public school lunch in CA is a bit less healthy than the average American diet.

We measure the relationship between having a lunch prepared by a standard (below median HEI) or healthy (above median HEI) company relative to in-house preparation by school staff. Our model estimates the effect of lunch quality on student achievement using year-to-year changes between in-house preparation of school meals and outside vendors of varying menu quality, within a given school . We control for grade, school, and year factors, as well as specific student and school characteristics including race, English learner, low family income, school budget, and student-to-teacher ratios.

We find that in years when a school contracts with a healthy lunch company, students at the school score better on end-of-year academic tests. On average, student test scores are 0.03 to 0.04 standard deviations higher (about 4 percentile points). Not only that, the test score increases are about 40 percent larger for students who qualify for reduced-price or free school lunches. These students are also the ones who are most likely to eat the school lunches.

Moreover, we find no evidence that contracting with a private company to provide healthier meals changes the number of school lunches sold. This is important for two reasons. First, it reinforces our conclusion that the test score improvements we measure are being driven by differences in food quality, and not food quantity. A number of recent studies have shown that providing (potentially) hungry kids with greater access to food through the National School Lunch Program can lead to improved test scores. We are among the very few studies to focus on quality, rather than food quantity (i.e., calories). Second, some critics of the Healthy, Hunger-Free Kids Act worried that by raising the nutritional standards of school lunches that fewer children would eat the food, thereby unintentionally harming the students that the law was designed to help. Our results provide some reassurance that this is not likely to be the case.

Finally, we also examine whether healthier school lunches lead to a reduction in the number of overweight students. We follow previous literature and use whether a student’s body composition (i.e. body fat) is measured to be outside the healthy zone on the Presidential Fitness Test . We find no evidence that having a healthier school lunch reduces the number of overweight students. There are a few possible interpretations of this finding, including that a longer time period may be necessary to observe improvements in health, the measure of overweight is too imprecise, or that students are eating the same amount of calories due to National School Lunch Program calorie meal targets.

Education researchers have emphasized the need and opportunity for cost-effective education policies . While the test score improvements are modest in size, providing healthier school lunches is potentially a very cost-effective way for a school to improve student learning. Using actual meal contract bid information we estimate that it costs approximately an additional $80 per student per year to contract with one of the healthy school lunch providers relative to preparing the meals completely in-house.

While this may seem expensive at first, compare the cost-effectiveness of our estimated test score changes with other policies. A common benchmark is the Tennessee Star experiment , which found a large reduction in the class size of grades K-3 by one-third correlated with a 0.22 standard deviation test score increase. This reduction cost over $2,000 when the study was published in 1999, and would be even more today. It is (rightfully) expensive to hire more teachers, but scaling this benefit-cost ratio to achieve a bump in student learning gains equal to our estimates, we find class-size increases would be at least five times more expensive than healthier lunches.

Thus, increasing the nutritional quality of school meals appears to be a promising, cost-effective way to improve student learning. The value of providing healthier public school lunches is true even without accounting for the potential short- and long-term health benefits, such as a reduction in childhood obesity and the development of healthier lifelong eating habits. Our results cast doubt on the wisdom of the recently announced proposal by Agriculture Secretary Sonny Perdue to roll back some of the school lunch health requirements implemented as part of the Healthy, Hunger-Free Kids Act.

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Article contents

Conclusions

Materials and methods

Supplementary material, school lunches in japan: their contribution to healthier nutrient intake among elementary-school and junior high-school children.

Published online by Cambridge University Press: 15 March 2017

Supplementary materials

The role of school lunches in diet quality has not been well studied. Here, we aimed to determine the contribution of school lunches to overall nutrient intake in Japanese schoolchildren.

The study was conducted nationwide under a cross-sectional design. A non-consecutive, three-day diet record was performed on two school days and a non-school day separately. The prevalence of inadequate nutrient intake was estimated for intakes on one of the school days and the non-school day, and for daily habitual intake estimated by the best-power method. The relationship between food intake and nutrient intake adequacy was examined.

Fourteen elementary and thirteen junior high schools in Japan.

Elementary-school children ( n 629) and junior high-school children ( n 281).

Intakes between the school and non-school days were significantly different for ≥60 % of nutrients. Almost all inadequacies were more prevalent on the non-school day. Regarding habitual intake, a high prevalence of inadequacy was observed for fat (29·9–47·7 %), dietary fibre (18·1–76·1 %) and salt (97·0–100 %). Inadequate habitual intake of vitamins and minerals (except Na) was infrequent in elementary-school children, but was observed in junior high-school children, particularly boys.

School lunches appear to improve total diet quality, particularly intake of most vitamins and minerals in Japanese children. However, excess intakes of fat and salt and insufficient intake of dietary fibre were major problems in this population. The contribution of school lunches to improving the intakes of these three nutrients was considered insufficient.

Diet is closely associated with growth in children ( Reference Emmett and Jones 1 ) and an unfavourable dietary intake in childhood causes several non-communicable diseases ( Reference Kaikkonen, Mikkila and Raitakari 2 ) in adulthood. Improving the quality of children’s diet is therefore a critical public health issue with lifelong benefits.

Many countries have implemented school lunch programmes, based on the idea that these can be an effective intervention for better dietary intake among children ( Reference Stallings and West Suitor 3 , Reference Adamson, Spence and Reed 4 ) . School lunches in Japan have a history of more than 100 years, with the first provided in 1889 at a private elementary school in Yamagata Prefecture ( 5 ) . This programme was recorded as relief work for children in poverty by Buddhists. The Ministry of Education began the financial subsidization of school lunches in 1932 and efforts to provide foods for as many children as possible were continued even in World War II. The nutritional status of schoolchildren just after the war was severely downgraded, and the nationwide school lunch programme was restarted in 1947 with relief supplies from the Licensed Agencies for Relief in Asia, UNICEF and others. Today, school lunches are provided in 99·2 % of elementary schools and 87·9 % of junior high schools in Japan (data from Gakkou Kyushoku Jissi Jyoukyou tou Chousa (Survey for the School Lunch Program) by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, 2014) based on the School Lunch Act. The mean monthly cost of school lunches in 2014 was approximately 4300 Japanese yen ($US 39·1; $US 1=110 JP¥) for children in public elementary schools and 4882 Japanese yen ($US 44·4) for those in public junior high schools. Low-income families can receive financial support for school lunches from the local or national government.

Under the Japanese programme, the same lunch menu is provided to all children of a school, including a staple food, main dish, side dish, drink and dessert (see online supplementary material, Supplemental Fig. 1), except for special cases such as children with food allergy. This fixed menu is a unique characteristic of Japanese school lunches, because the same menu, including ‘healthy’ foods such as vegetables or fruits, are mandatorily provided to all the children in the school and no choices (e.g. to choose only pizza and French fries at a cafeteria) are permitted. Children are taught not to leave any food on their plate and the percentage of waste food is 6·9 % on average (survey on food loss in school lunches, performed by the Ministry of the Environment, 2014). Since the nutrient content of school lunches is regulated by the Gakkou Kyushoku Jissi Kijyun (Standards for the School Lunch Program), the provision of school lunches has likely improved the overall nutrient intakes of Japanese children. However, this beneficial aspect of school lunches has not been evaluated in detail.

Here, to demonstrate the contribution of school lunches to healthier nutrient intake in Japanese children, we first evaluated the difference in nutrient intake on school days and non-school days in elementary-school and junior high-school children. To clarify the problem of overall nutrient intake in this generation, we then estimated the habitual nutrient intake. Finally, we also estimated the total adequacy of nutrient intake and its relationship with food intake.

Study participants

Recruitment of study participants was supported by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, Japan, and the local boards of education at both the prefectural and municipal level. Twelve prefectures (Aomori, Yamagata, Ibaraki, Tochigi, Toyama, Shiga, Shimane, Ehime, Kochi, Fukuoka, Saga and Kagoshima) were chosen as study areas in consideration of geographical condition (e.g. north or south, rural or urban) and study feasibility. Schools with experienced nutrition teachers (dietitians) were selected for the study and these dietitians supported the dietary assessment. The unit of recruitment was the class, with a minimum of thirty students. From each area, ninety children (thirty children in each of third and fifth grade in elementary school and thirty children in second grade in junior high school) on average were recruited by teachers in the schools. When a class contained fewer than thirty students, an additional class (or school) was recruited. All children in classes selected for the survey received a written document to explain the survey and recording sheets for the diet record. Finally, a total of 1190 children (389 third graders and 392 fifth graders from fourteen elementary schools, and 409 second graders from thirteen junior high schools) were recruited.

Semi-weighed diet record

Study items in the present study were dietary assessment by diet record (DR) and measurement of height and weight at school. Each school set the period for the non-consecutive, three-day DR and conducted the measurement of height and weight within one month of that period. All records were collected by the study centre at the researcher’s university and checked by the researchers, who confirmed any unclear points with the participating children and/or their guardians through the schools. The dietitians or teachers who managed the survey at each school had a correspondence table which linked the children’s names and identification numbers for the survey, but the researchers did not have access to this information.

Guardians of the participating children were asked to complete a three-day, non-consecutive DR of their children’s dietary intake, of whom 915 complied (participation rate: 76·9 %). The three recording days for the DR consisted of two school days with a school lunch and one weekend day without a school lunch all within the same week (e.g. Tuesday, Thursday and Saturday within one week). Initially, each school set two survey days for the recording of school lunches in November or December 2014. Days without special events were chosen for the survey. These two days and one weekend day were also set as the survey days for dietary intake at home. The participants were able to choose either a Saturday or Sunday, again without special plans, as survey day according to their private schedule.

Dietary intake from the school lunch was recorded as follows. Before cooking, the dietitians at the school weighed all ingredients in all dishes for the participating children. They then measured the total weight of the cooked foods within each bulk cooking pot before serving. Using weights before and after cooking, the dietitians prepared conversion charts to estimate the weight of each ingredient consumed by a participating child from the weight of the cooked dish actually consumed by that child, with the weight of cooked foods consumed by each child measured in the classroom by a dietitian or the child under the dietitian’s support with a cooking scale. Beverages and processed foods provided without cooking were weighed in the same manner. Leftover food for each child was weighed after the lunch to estimate the net weight of consumed foods.

Dietary intake at home was recorded by the guardian who was the main preparer of meals for the participating child. All foods and beverages consumed out of school were recorded on the same two days set for the school lunch survey and also on the one weekend (non-school) day. The guardians were provided a manual for the DR and recording sheets. The school dietitians explained the recording methods to the guardians and supported them throughout the survey. The guardians weighed the ingredients in dishes, in the prepared dishes after cooking and in all drinks, whenever possible. If participants ate out and weighing was difficult, they recorded the restaurant’s name, name of dishes and whether any food was left uneaten. The main items recorded on the DR sheets were: (i) names of dishes; (ii) names of foods and any ingredients in dishes; (iii) approximate amount of foods consumed (amount measured by measuring spoon or measuring cup, or number of consumed foods (e.g. two strawberries)); (iv) measured weight of each ingredient, food and/or dish; and (v) whether the meal was consumed under usual conditions or at a special event. In addition, the guardians were asked to submit the packaging of processed foods or snacks with the recording sheet for estimation of ingredients.

The recording sheets for each survey day were handed directly to the school dietitian immediately after recording and then checked by the school dietitian as soon as possible. If missing or unclear information was recorded by a guardian, the research dietitian questioned the guardian directly. After this confirmation process, food item numbers ( 6 ) were assigned to all recorded foods and beverages, and if necessary, consumed weight was estimated as precisely as possible utilizing the information recorded for the approximate amount of food, website of the restaurant or manufacturer, or nutrition facts on the food package. Recorded food items and weights were then reconfirmed by two research dietitians at the central office of the study. The weight of each food and ingredient included in the school lunch was estimated at the office based on the weight of consumed dishes and the conversion charts prepared by the school dietitians. The data for the lunch and the other meals were combined and the nutritional values were calculated. All calculations were performed with the statistical software package SAS version 9.4.

Other measurements

Body height and weight were measured to the nearest 0·1 cm and 0·1 kg, respectively, with the child wearing light clothing and no shoes. Measurement was done for the present study or as part of a routine health check-up by school nurses at each school. The prevalence of obesity in the children was evaluated by percentage of excess weight, which is defined using the formula: [(actual weight – standard weight)/standard weight]×100 (%). If percentage of excess weight was ≥20 %, the child was categorized as overweight, and if ≤−20 %, he/she was categorized as underweight. The standard weight was calculated using age- and sex-specific formulas which included actual height and coefficients ( Reference Ikiuo (Sawamura), Hashimoto and Murata 7 ) .

Statistical analysis

First, we determined energy and nutrient intakes on the first school survey day and the non-school day separately and then compared them using the Wilcoxon signed-rank test. We used values on the first school day for this comparison because intake on the non-school day was measured for a single day only; if we had instead averaged intakes for the two school days, the distribution of intakes would have been narrower than those of the single non-school day due to the reduction in day-to-day variation by the averaging (i.e. outliers of intake were smoothed by averaging and the percentage of inadequacy became lower), which would have in turn hampered comparison of the inadequacy of nutrient intakes, as described below.

To compare the dietary intakes reported in the DR with the corresponding Dietary Reference Intake (DRI) values ( 8 ) , we adjusted the reported nutrient intakes to the energy-adjusted intakes on the assumption that each participant consumed his/her estimated energy requirement (EER) rather than his/her reported energy. Self-administered dietary assessment, including DR, cannot avoid reporting errors, particularly under- or over-reporting ( Reference Willett, Howe and Kushi 9 , Reference Murakami, Sasaki and Takahashi 10 ) . This may induce bias when the reported nutrient intake levels are compared with corresponding DRI values, because the latter do not consider this problem: the DRI values are set for an individual of the reference height and weight shown in the DRI ( 8 ) . The calculation method is as follows: Energy-adjusted nutrient intake (amount/d)=[reported nutrient intake (amount/d)×EER (kcal/d)]/[observed energy intake (kcal/d)]. The EER for each child was calculated based on sex and age in days. Physical activity level was fixed to level II (moderate) ( 8 ) in all participating children due to the absence of quantitative information about physical activity. For protein, fat and carbohydrate, %energy, i.e. the percentage of energy intake from protein, fat or carbohydrate to total energy intake, was used for comparison with DRI values. Inadequacy of nutrient intake was calculated by comparing the adjusted nutrient intake with each dietary reference value according to the Japanese DRI ( 8 ) . Of the total thirty-four nutrients presented in the DRI, five nutrients (biotin, Cr, Mo, Se, iodine) were excluded from analysis because of insufficient information about their contents in the food composition tables in Japan ( 6 ) . For nutrients with an Estimated Average Requirement (EAR), namely protein (g/d), vitamin A expressed as retinol activity equivalents, thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, vitamin B 6 , vitamin B 12 , folate, vitamin C, Ca, Mg, Fe (except for girls aged 13–14 years), Zn and Cu, energy-adjusted intake levels below the EAR were considered inadequate ( 8 ) . For Fe intake in girls aged 13–14 years, because the EAR cut-point method cannot be used due to the seriously skewed distribution of the requirement in menstruating girls, the probability approach was used instead ( 11 – 13 ) . Fe absorption rate was assumed to be 15 % ( 8 ) . In the Japanese DRI, a tentative dietary goal for preventing lifestyle-related diseases (DG) was given for protein (%energy), total fat, carbohydrate, dietary fibre, Na expressed as salt equivalent and K in children ( 8 ) . For these nutrients, energy-adjusted intake levels outside the range of the corresponding DG were considered inadequate. For nutrients with an Adequate Intake, the inadequacy of intake was not assessed.

Second, we estimated the distribution of habitual intake of energy and nutrients in this population by the best-power method using HabitDist, a software application developed to perform this method ( Reference Dodd, Guenther and Freedman 14 – Reference Yokoyama 16 ) . All three of the DR were used for this estimation. The inadequacy of nutrient intake was then calculated in the same manner as described above based on the estimated distribution of intakes.

Finally, the total adequacy of nutrient intake was categorized into four groups, which were used to describe food intake. Averages of the three-day intakes were used as the habitual nutrient intake of each child. The groups for nutrient intake adequacy were determined by combining the number of nutrients which met the EAR (maximum, 14) and the number which met the DG (maximum, 6), and named ‘Adequate’ (number of nutrients meeting the EAR is ≥12, number meeting the DG is ≥4), ‘Excess’ (≥12, ≤3; possibly a high-risk group for non-communicable diseases such as hypertension or CVD), ‘Deficient’ (≤11, ≥4; possibly a high-risk group for insufficiency/deficiency of vitamins and minerals) and ‘Inadequate’ (≤11, ≤3; possibly a high-risk group for both non-communicable diseases and insufficiency/deficiency). Definition of food groups is described elsewhere ( Reference Asakura, Uechi and Masayasu 17 ) . The vegetables group used in the present study included all types of vegetables. The ready-made foods group included retort-pouched beef curry, powdered corn cream soup, white fish for frying (frozen), Hamburg steak (frozen), hamburgers and fried chicken served at fast-food restaurants, etc. Food intake was represented by intake weight (grams) per energy intake of 4184 kJ (1000 kcal), and compared between the groups by the Kruskal–Wallis test and subsequent post hoc analysis (Dwass, Steel and Critchlow-Fligner method).

All analyses were performed with statistical software package SAS version 9.4. Statistical tests were two-sided and P values of <0·05 were considered statistically significant.

Among the 915 children who completed the three-day DR, 910 were included in the analysis. None brought a lunch from home. Two children were eliminated because their average daily energy intake in the survey period was less than 0·5 times the EER for a child of their corresponding age with the lowest physical activity level (EER I ( 8 ) ). Similarly, three children were eliminated because their daily energy intake on any day in the three survey days was less than 3138 kJ (750 kcal; 0·5 times the EER I for girls aged 8–9 years).

Participant characteristics are shown in Table 1 . Each grade and sex stratum included approximately 150 children. About 10 % of children were overweight, but the percentage was low (5·4 %) in the girls in junior high schools.

Table 1 Characteristics of schoolchildren ( n 910) from fourteen elementary and thirteen junior high schools in twelve prefectures of Japan, 2014

Data are presented as n and % unless indicated otherwise.

† Body constitution was evaluated by percentage of excess weight, defined using the formula: [(actual weight – standard weight)/standard weight]×100 (%). If percentage of excess weight was ≥20 %, the child was categorized as overweight; if ≤−20 %, he/she was categorized as underweight.

The difference in nutrient intake and prevalence of inadequacy between the first school day and non-school day are described in Table 2 . In all grade and sex strata, intake between the school and non-school days was significantly different for ≥60 % of nutrients. Since the intake data collected on one day were used for comparison, the estimated prevalence of inadequacy in Table 2 was relatively high for all nutrients. However, the difference between school and non-school days was still obvious, and all inadequacies were more prevalent on the non-school day, except for protein in grams and Cu among girls, for which prevalence was zero on both the school and non-school days.

Table 2 Difference in nutrient intake and inadequacy between school and non-school days by grade and sex among schoolchildren ( n 910) from fourteen elementary and thirteen junior high schools in twelve prefectures of Japan, 2014

Ref. value, reference value; IQR, interquartile range; w/m, with menstruation; %energy, percentage of energy; RAE, retinol activity equivalents; EAR, Estimated Average Requirement; DG, tentative dietary goal for preventing lifestyle-related diseases; EER, estimated energy requirement.

Nutrient intake of each day was energy-adjusted based on the assumption that every participant consumed the same amount of energy as his/her EER. Nutrient intake on school days was the value observed on the first day of the three-day diet record.

* P < 0·05 (the comparison between intakes on school and non-school days was performed by the Wilcoxon signed-rank test).

† Prevalence of inadequacy shows the percentage of participants whose nutrient intake on the survey day did not meet the reference value. If a reference value is shown as a range, the percentage of participants whose intake was above the reference range is shown in parentheses. This estimation was performed by the EAR cut-point method.

‡ Retinol activity equivalent.

§ Sodium chloride equivalent.

|| Prevalence of inadequacy for Fe was estimated by the EAR cut-point method. In addition, the probability method was applied for estimation in girls aged 13–14 years using the EAR of Fe for girls with menstruation.

Table 3 shows habitual energy and nutrient intake and the prevalence of inadequacy for the nutrients with an EAR or DG. A high prevalence (more than 30 %) of inadequacy was observed for fat, total dietary fibre and salt in most grade and sex strata. Inadequacy of Ca and Fe intake was high in girls in the third grade of elementary school and in all children in junior high school. The relationship between the total adequacy of nutrient intake and food intake is summarized in Table 4 . Of the seventeen food groups assessed, thirteen food intakes in boys and twelve in girls differed significantly among the four nutrient adequacy groups. In the ‘Adequate’ group, intakes of pulses, vegetables, fruits, mushrooms and seaweeds were higher than in the other groups. The ‘Excess’ group was characterized by high intakes of fish, meat, eggs and dairy products. The ‘Deficient’ group had the fewest children, and their intake of well-milled rice was highest among the four groups. Characteristics of the ‘Inadequate’ group were opposite to those of the ‘Adequate’ group; this group had the lowest intakes of pulses, vegetables and fruits and the highest intake of ready-made foods, and boys in this group had the highest intake of soft drinks.

Table 3 Habitual energy intake and habitual nutrient intake with energy adjustment by grade and sex among schoolchildren ( n 910) from fourteen elementary and thirteen junior high schools in twelve prefectures of Japan, 2014

Ref. value, reference value; IQR, interquartile range; w/m, with menstruation; %energy, percentage of energy; RAE, retinol activity equivalents; EER, estimated energy requirement; EAR, Estimated Average Requirement; DG, tentative dietary goal for preventing lifestyle-related diseases.

Habitual intake was calculated by the best-power method using a three-day diet record. Nutrient intake of each day was energy-adjusted based on the assumption that every participant consumed the same amount of energy as his/her EER.

† Prevalence of inadequacy shows the percentage of participants whose habitual intake did not meet the reference value. If a reference value is shown as a range, the percentage of participants whose habitual intake was above the range is shown in parentheses. This estimation was performed by the EAR cut-point method.

|| Prevalence of inadequacy for Fe was estimated by the EAR cut-point method. In addition, the probability method was applied for the estimation in girls aged 13–14 years using the EAR of Fe for girls with menstruation.

Table 4 Relationship between adequacy of nutrient intake and food intake among schoolchildren ( n 910) from fourteen elementary and thirteen junior high schools in twelve prefectures of Japan, 2014

IQR, interquartile range; diff, significance of between-group difference; DRI, Dietary Reference Intake.

† Groups of nutrient intake adequacy were defined by the number of nutrients that met the reference value in the Japanese DRI ( 8 ) .

Estimated Average Requirement (EAR) is set for fourteen nutrients, and tentative dietary goal for preventing lifestyle-related diseases (DG) is set for six nutrients in the DRI values.

Adequate: number of nutrients which met EAR in the DRI is ≥12, and those which met DG is ≥4.

Excessive: number of nutrients which met EAR in the DRI is ≥12, and those which met DG is ≤3.

Deficient: number of nutrients which met EAR in the DRI is ≤11, and those which met DG is ≥4.

Inadequate: number of nutrients which met EAR in the DRI is ≤11, and those which met DG is ≤3.

‡ The corresponding letters show that there were statistically significant differences in food intake between two groups of nutrient intake adequacy. This comparison for each group was performed as a post hoc analysis (Dwass, Steel and Critchlow-Fligner method) of the Kruskal–Wallis tests.

§ The P value shows the result of Kruskal–Wallis tests to compare food intakes between groups of nutrient intake adequacy.

In this comparison of nutrient intake on school and non-school days in Japanese schoolchildren, we found that the prevalence of inadequate nutrient intake was clearly higher on the non-school day for almost all nutrients. These findings suggest that the school lunch programme in Japan is an effective and powerful intervention in improving nutrient intake in Japanese children. The present study is the first to compare nutrient intakes between school and non-school days in Japan.

The contribution of school lunch programmes has been assessed in other countries. For example, the school lunch standard has gradually been improved in the UK ( Reference Adamson, Spence and Reed 4 ) . Stevens et al . showed that while school lunches generally had a healthier nutrient profile than packed lunches ( Reference Stevens, Nicholas and Wood 18 ) , they nevertheless did not provide the balance of nutrients required to meet nutrient-based standards. Since they collected data for lunch only, it was not possible to compare diet quality between school and non-school days within individuals. Evans et al . reported that children taking a packed lunch to school consumed a lower-quality diet over the whole day than children having a school meal ( Reference Evans, Mandl and Christian 19 ) . Spence et al . also reported that the implementation of school food policy standards in the UK was associated with a significant improvement in the diet of children aged 4–7 years ( Reference Spence, Delve and Stamp 20 ) , but not in children aged 11–12 years ( Reference Spence, Delve and Stamp 21 ) . These authors suggested that school lunches might also be useful in preventing inequity in children’s dietary intake due to the socio-economic status of their family ( Reference Spence, Matthews and White 22 ) . This effect is also expected in the USA ( Reference Huang and Barnidge 23 , Reference Longacre, Drake and Titus 24 ) .

In the USA, the National School Lunch Program (NSLP) was authorized as a permanent programme in 1946 ( Reference Hirschman and Chriqui 25 ) . School food policy in the USA has improved over the past several decades ( Reference Hirschman and Chriqui 25 ) and its effectiveness has been examined. Based on data collected in 2010, Smith and Cunningham-Sabo showed that relatively few students met the NSLP lunch standards, due to the relatively low intake of vegetables at lunch ( Reference Smith and Cunningham-Sabo 26 ) . The Healthy Hunger-Free Kids Act, the most recent nutrition standards for the NSLP and the School Breakfast Program, took effect at the beginning of the 2012/13 school year. Johnson et al . reported that the nutritional quality of foods chosen by students improved significantly following enforcement of the Act ( Reference Johnson, Podrabsky and Rocha 27 ) , but did not weigh the foods consumed by each child and did not evaluate the quality of total dietary intake, including breakfast and dinner. Cullen et al . showed that intake of fruit, 100 % fruit juice, vegetables and whole grains among elementary-school pupils increased after the new act, but at the same time expressed concern over the low absolute consumption of fruit and vegetables even under the new act ( Reference Cullen, Chen and Dave 28 ) . Given the recent change in school lunch standards and relatively low proportion of children taking school lunches in the UK and USA ( Reference Adamson, Spence and Reed 4 , Reference Hirschman and Chriqui 25 ) , the effect of current school lunches in these countries requires further evaluation. If the proportion of children who take school lunches is low, a beneficial effect of school lunches on total nutrient intake cannot impact schoolchildren even if the standards for school lunches are appropriately established. Increasing the uptake rate of school lunches requires improvements in school meal quality and financial support (if necessary).

A few studies have examined the effectiveness of school lunch programmes in other countries. For example, Dubuisson et al . reported both beneficial and deleterious effects of the school lunch in France ( Reference Dubuisson, Lioret and Dufour 29 ) . Free school lunches are provided to every child in the compulsory school system in Sweden and improvement of the school meal quality was reported after the introduction of new legislation ( Reference Patterson and Elinder 30 ) . Other groups reported that the association between family environment and dietary intake was stronger in countries without free school lunches (Germany and the Netherlands) than in those with them (Sweden and Finland) ( Reference Ray, Roos and Brug 31 ) . These results suggest that school lunches may affect overall diet quality in children.

A unique characteristic of the Japanese school lunch is its fixed menu. Children do not have any choice; the same menu is provided to all students in a school and is usually eaten in the home classroom. The Gakkou Kyushoku-hou (Law for School Lunches) stipulates that school lunches are an integral component of the education programme, and not simply an interval between classes or relaxation or break time. While allowing for cultural differences between countries, improving children’s diet quality using school lunches may require a certain degree of restriction. In England, Day et al . summarized staff and pupil perceptions of school meal provision ( Reference Day, Sahota and Christian 32 ) and found that while some children stated that healthier options in the school lunch were preferable, too much freedom over the selection of foods was potentially detrimental. If school lunch menus do offer choices, these should aim to eliminate less healthful choices and be offered with appropriate instructions about how to select healthy foods. Another distinctive feature of the Japanese school lunch is the low percentage of waste food (e.g. 6·9 % in 2014). This ensures the sufficiency of nutrient intake from school lunches. School dietitians provide a monthly menu for a school and children enjoy various dishes over the one-month period. Also, since all children in a classroom take the same menu, the children may feel pressure to eat everything on their plate like their friends.

Regarding habitual nutrient intake, the inadequacy of most vitamins and minerals was quite low, except for Na. The contribution of school lunches to improving the intake of these items was considered to be sufficient. However, higher fat and salt intakes and lower dietary fibre intake than those provided in the DRI were apparent in both boys and girls in all age groups. Although nutrient levels in school lunches are already regulated by the Standards for the School Lunch Program, achieving the recommended values requires more diligent compliance. Indeed, compliance policies may require revision. Intakes of Ca and Fe were not sufficient in girls in the youngest (8–9 years) group or in children in junior high school. Intakes of these minerals in junior high-school students might not have increased to meet the increased requirements of the growth spurt at this age. On the other hand, it is possible that the reference values are not appropriate for children in certain age groups. For example, the EAR for Ca in girls aged 8–9 years is higher than that for boys of the same age. Because intake data for children are generally lacking, reference values in children are usually established by extrapolating the values for adults. The suitability of reference values for each sex and each age group warrants reassessment using more appropriate dietary assessment data. Further studies to describe dietary intake in children are necessary to improve the DRI in Japan.

Food intake differed significantly by the total adequacy of nutrient intake. Children in the ‘Adequate’ group consumed more plant foods than others, except for cereals. Abundant intake of these foods led to adequate intakes of vitamins and minerals. The ‘Excess’ group was characterized by higher intake of animal foods and lower intake of well-milled rice. This group contained three times more children than the ‘Deficient’ group, implying that inadequate intake of nutrients such as fat or salt, which are associated with CVD ( Reference Kaikkonen, Mikkila and Raitakari 2 ) , is more problematic than nutrient deficiency in Japanese schoolchildren. Characteristics of the ‘Deficient’ group were less clear. The word ‘deficient’ here means that a number of intakes of nutrients with an EAR (i.e. nutrients which can cause deficiency) were inappropriate, whereas intakes of nutrients with a DG (i.e. nutrients which can cause non-communicable diseases such as CVD) were relatively appropriate. The ‘Deficient’ group had higher intakes of well-milled rice and seasonings and lower intakes of eggs and dairy products. Children in this group might have had higher consumption of staple foods (mostly well-milled rice) and lower consumption of main and side dishes than others. The balance between the amount of staple foods and main dishes may be important to maintaining appropriate macronutrient balance. Children in the ‘Inadequate’ group consumed less plant foods except for cereals and relatively less animal foods, but more ready-made foods, soft drinks and confectioneries. Their intake of well-milled rice was second highest among the four groups. These results conclusively demonstrate that increased intakes of fruits and vegetables will improve the nutrient intakes of schoolchildren, and that school lunches should be diligently planned to include them. In contrast, main dishes, which chiefly include meats, fish or eggs, should be selected with care even in school lunches. In addition, the intakes of these animal foods among children in the ‘Inadequate’ group were low, but only a small number of nutrients met the DG. Cooking methods that do not use much oil/fat and a reduced use of seasonings are recommended. The intakes of fat and salt should also be decreased by avoiding the intake of confectioneries. Regarding dietary fibre intake, higher intakes of not only vegetables and fruits but also unrefined cereals can be recommended. The mean daily intake of brown or half-milled rice in this study population was less than 10 g (data not shown). Some schools participating in the study provided rice cooked with barley for lunch; this is also an effective means of increasing dietary fibre intake in children.

The present study was a school-based, nationwide study and the participation rate was relatively high (76·9 %). We therefore consider that the generalizability of the results is sufficient. Additional strengths of the study were its quantitative assessment of dietary intake on both school and non-school days, and use of a three-day DR, which allowed us to estimate the habitual intake of each nutrient in the analysed population. Further, all children in the present study routinely had school lunches irrespective of their nutrient intake or socio-economic status. Since reverse causality (e.g. children in low socio-economic status tend to have school lunches) was very unlikely, it was possible to directly observe the contribution of school lunches to overall nutrient intake in the children.

At the same time, several limitations of the study warrant mention. First, since most analyses were performed with stratification by sex and age, the number of children in each stratum was approximately 150. Although this might appear small for the estimation of average intakes and exact distributions, results across strata regarding the adequacy of nutrient intake were similar and could be interpreted. Second, as schools with experienced nutrition teachers (dietitians) were selected for the survey, the beneficial aspect of school lunches may have been emphasized due to better menus and less leftovers. However, as described before, the nutrient content of school lunches is regulated by the national standards and the percentage of waste food is 6·9 % on average, even in the national survey. Third, a three-day DR might be too short to allow habitual intake to be estimated with precision. In addition, to ensure that our comparison of the prevalence of nutrient intake inadequacy between school and non-school days was valid, prevalence had to be calculated using only one of the two school-day DR, to prevent the confounding that would have been introduced by averaging over the two days, as noted above. However, the difference in prevalence between the school and non-school days was obvious, and the results were clear. Since dietary assessment by DR places a heavy burden on participants, a period longer than 3d was not considered feasible. Finally, the DR at home was performed by the guardians of the participating children. Since this was the first experience with a DR for most, the accuracy of the record might be less than would be obtained by a trained dietitian. To ensure the quality of the DR, the guardians were provided with a detailed survey manual and were supported by their school dietitian.

In conclusion, the present study found that school lunches in Japan appear to improve nutrient intakes in Japanese schoolchildren. The improvement in intake for most vitamins and minerals provided by the school lunch may be sufficient for schoolchildren to overcome deficiencies in the diet received at home, when this is inadequate. On the other hand, the excess intakes of fat and salt and insufficient intake of dietary fibre were major problems in this population. The contribution of the school lunch to improving the intakes of these three nutrients was considered insufficient.

Acknowledgements

Acknowledgements: The authors thank the dietitians, school nurses and teachers who supported this research in each school, and the staff of the municipal government in each study area for their valuable contribution. Financial support: This work was financially supported by a Health and Labour Sciences Research Grant (number H26-Jyunkankitou (seisaku)-shitei-001) from the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare, Japan. The Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare had no role in the design, analysis or writing of this article. Conflict of interest: None. Authorship: Author contributions are follows: S.S designed and directed the study. K.A. supported field establishment and recruitment for the study. S.S. and K.A. supported the collection of dietary data. K.A. arranged the data collected from each school. K.A. performed the statistical analyses and drafted the paper. Both authors contributed to the development of the submitted manuscript. Ethics of human subject participation: This study was conducted in accordance with the guidelines laid down in the Declaration of Helsinki and all procedures involving human subjects were approved by the Ethics Committee of the University of Tokyo, Faculty of Medicine (approval number 10653, approval date 3 October 2014). Participants (children) and their guardians were informed about the study verbally and by a written document before answering the questionnaire, and responding to the questionnaire was regarded as consent for study participation. Since no personally identifiable information such as name or mailing address was collected, all collected data were anonymous.

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Volume 20, Issue 9
Keiko Asakura (a1) (a2) and Satoshi Sasaki (a2)
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980017000374

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Student Perception of Healthfulness, School Lunch Healthfulness, and Participation in School Lunch: The Healthy Communities Study

Affiliations.

1 Nutrition Policy Institute, Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of California, Berkeley, CA. Electronic address: [email protected].
2 Nutrition Policy Institute, Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of California, Berkeley, CA.
3 School of Nutrition and Health Promotion, Arizona State University, Phoenix, AZ.
PMID: 30850302
PMCID: PMC6662582
DOI: 10.1016/j.jneb.2019.01.014

Objective: To increase understanding about the healthfulness of school lunch and participation, this study measured 3 school lunch variables, students' perception of healthfulness, objective healthfulness, and participation, and examined associations between each pair of variables (3 associations).

Methods: Multilevel models were used for a secondary analysis of data from the Healthy Communities Study, a 2013-2015 observational study of schools (n = 423) and children (n = 5,106) from 130 US communities.

Results: Students who reported that school lunches were sometimes, often, or very often healthy ate school lunches more frequently per week (β = .71; P < .001) than did students who responded never or rarely. No associations were found with objective school lunch healthfulness.

Conclusions and implications: Student perception of healthfulness of school lunch is positively associated with participation but not with objective school lunch healthfulness. Understanding how student perception is associated with participation can inform effective communications to students to increase participation in the school lunch program.

Keywords: nutrition policy; perception; school lunch participation; school meals; students.

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How school lunch quality affects student achievement

The Healthy, Hunger-Free Kids Act of 2010 was intended to improve student health and reduce childhood obesity by increasing the minimum nutritional standards that schools must meet. Despite its good intentions, the changes mandated by this act were met with immediate backlash . In response to the criticism and as part of its commitment to repeal a host of Obama-era regulations, the Trump administration recently put a stop to some of the new standards .

But could returning to the days of anything-goes in school cafeterias negatively impact student achievement? The results from a recent NBER study suggest it’s possible. In the past, analyses of school meals have been limited to examinations of whether providing meals can increase test scores (it does). This study is unique because it investigates whether the nutritional quality of meals can boost test scores.

The researchers examined a dataset of California public elementary, middle, and high schools that report state test results. From there, they determined whether these schools had a contract with a private meal provider. In total, approximately 143 districts overseeing 1,188 schools—12 percent of California’s public schools—did so, contracting with a total of forty-five different vendors. The remaining 88 percent of California’s public schools utilized “in-house” staff to prepare meals.

Next, trained nutritionists from the Nutrition Policy Institute determined the quality of vendors’ school lunches by using a modified version of the Healthy Eating Index (HEI), a measure of diet quality that’s used by the U.S. Department of Agriculture to determine relationships between diet and health-related outcomes. Vendors with an HEI score above the median vendor score were labeled healthy vendors, while those with below median HEI scores were labeled standard vendors.

For student achievement data, researchers used California’s Standardized Testing and Reporting (STAR) assessment, which was the statewide test until 2013-14. STAR was administered to all students in grades two through eleven each spring, and covered the four core subject areas as well as a set of end-of-course high school exams. Researchers used these data to create a single composite test score for each year and each school grade.

After controlling for various factors, results show that contracting with a healthy vendor increased student test scores by .03 to .04 standard deviations on average relative to in-school meal preparation. In laymen’s terms, that's a boost of about 4 percentile points . The findings also show modest evidence of larger effects for economically disadvantaged students than for non-disadvantaged students. Healthy cafeteria vendors did not cost dramatically more than in-house preparation. Researchers also found that switching from in-house meal prep to a healthy lunch vendor would raise a student’s test score by 0.1 standard deviations for only $258 per year. By comparison, the Tennessee STAR experiment —which reduced class size in grades K-3—cost $1,368 per year to raise a student’s test score by the same amount.

Aside from increased student achievement and low cost, the report offers a few additional data points. First, it found no evidence that hiring a vendor to serve healthier meals led to a change in the number of lunches sold. Second, healthy meal vendors did not reduce the percentage of students who are overweight, although the researchers note that “a longer time period may be necessary to observe improvements in health.” For schools looking to increase student achievement without spending a fortune, investing in healthy meals seems like a cost-effective solution.

SOURCE: Michael L. Anderson, Justin Gallagher, Elizabeth Ramirez Ritchie, “School Lunch Quality and Academic Performance ,” National Bureau of Economic Research (April 2017).

Jessica Poiner joined the Thomas B. Fordham Institute in 2014 as an education policy analyst. Prior to joining the Fordham team, she was a Teach For America corps member who worked as a high school English teacher in Memphis, Tennessee. She writes regularly for Fordham’s blog, the Ohio Gadfly Daily ,…

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Healthy Body, Healthy Mind: The Impact of School Lunch on Student Performance

Health Body, Healthy Mind: The Impact of School Lunch on Student Performance - header image

By now, it is no mystery that what people eat has an effect on their daily physical and mental health. When people keep themselves well-nourished, they can participate more fully and effectively in a wide variety of activities. Of course, nutrition has an impact on K-12 students as well, from their academic performance to their behavior in the classroom.

During the 2012–2013 school year, more than 30 million students participated in the National School Lunch Program (NSLP) , according to a U.S. Government Accountability Office report. By providing healthy lunches, schools can help their students perform better in the classroom and improve their overall health.

The State of School Lunches

The School Nutrition Association (SNA) is the largest professional organization for school lunch providers in the country, with 55,000 members. The SNA offers a fact sheet of statistics about the current state of the National School Lunch Program.

Through the program, nearly 100,000 schools and institutions serve lunches each day. Of the total 30 million students served:

2 million are receiving free lunches (children from families with incomes at or below 130 percent of the poverty level are eligible)
5 million are receiving reduced-price lunches (children from families with incomes between 130 percent and 185 percent of the poverty level are eligible)
7 million pay full price (school districts set their own prices for paid meals)

Currently, 130 percent of the poverty level is $31,005 for a family of four, and 185 percent is $44,123.

This data points toward one of the major issues with school lunches in America. If 19.2 million students are receiving free lunches due to their socioeconomic status, school lunch could be their only opportunity for a nutritious meal each day.

Free Healthy Meals Activity

Download our free Healthy Meals activity for your elementary students!

School Lunch Legislation

In 1945, President Harry S. Truman signed into law the National School Lunch Act, which created the National School Lunch Program. In post-World War II America, Truman and Congress intended the bill to help absorb new farm surpluses.

When President Barack Obama was elected, first lady Michelle Obama sought to revitalize the National School Lunch Program as a part of her mission against childhood obesity. Nearly one in three American children are either overweight or obese , putting them at risk for chronic health problems related to obesity, such as heart disease, high blood pressure, cancer and asthma.

School lunches had reached a point where they were not providing the nutrients students needed to succeed and be healthy. With so many students relying on free school lunches as their primary meal for the day, reform became imperative.

In 2010, Congress passed the Healthy, Hunger-Free Kids Act . This bill made significant changes to school lunches for the first time in decades.

The most important change was the introduction of higher nutrition standards developed by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA). The bill also places emphasis on the utilization of local farms and gardens to provide students with fresh produce. It requires schools to be audited every three years to see if they have met the nutrition standards.

As the USDA worked on turning the guidelines into regulations, pushback came from several groups. Some members of Congress who had supported the legislation began to criticize government intrusion into schools, and food companies that became fearful of falling profits began to lobby for delaying the changes.

Nevertheless, the USDA regulations went into effect during the 2012-2013 school year. With every meal, schools are required to offer students fruits and vegetables, low-fat or fat-free milk, whole grains and lean protein , according to the Student Nutrition Association.

Some school districts have had to overcome challenges with implementing the USDA standards due to the increasing cost of feeding students. In school cafeterias, lunches must be easy to prepare and distribute in an efficient manner.

Impact of Nutrition on Students

For years, scientists have been studying the effect of nutrition on student performance. In 2008, a Journal of School Health study discovered that fifth-graders eating fast food scored worse on standardized literary assessments. A follow-up study of fifth-graders published in The Journal of Educational Research in 2012 linked eating fast food to declining math and reading scores. How exactly do these foods affect children?

Nutrition can affect students either directly or indirectly. A 2014 report, “Nutrition and Students’ Academic Performance,” summarizes research on these issues.

Direct Effects

There are several direct effects that involve the immediate impact of nutrition on the daily performance of a student. Mental and behavioral problems can be traced back to unhealthy nutrition and poor eating habits.

Nutritional deficiencies in zinc, B vitamins, Omega-3 fatty acids and protein have been shown to affect the cognitive development of children. There is also evidence to suggest that diets with high amounts of trans and saturated fats can have a negative impact on cognition. This will harm the ability of students to learn at a pace necessary for school success.

Scientists have also established a link between student behavior and nutrition. Access to proper nutrition can help students maintain psychosocial well-being and reduce aggression. This can have a positive effect on students by avoiding discipline and school suspension.

Indirect Effects

The indirect effects of poor nutrition can be severely detrimental to the performance of students over time. Students with unhealthy lifestyles are far more likely to become sick. These illnesses then have an effect on the amount of class time missed. By not attending classes, students are much more likely to fall behind. And when they are in class, they are more likely to have little energy and to have concentration issues.

The Future of School Lunch and Student Performance

Teachers know that school lunches are a key part of the school system. They have a daily impact on the well-being of students both inside and outside of school. If you’re a teacher interested in developing your leadership skills and expanding your knowledge of how to improve student academic performance, consider the online Master of Arts in Education from Campbellsville University. The fully online program can help you gain the credentials you need while maintaining your responsibilities. Learn more today!

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'The Asian Kid With The Stinky Lunch' Narrative Is A Pop Culture Trope, But It's Still Worth Telling

Senior Lifestyle Reporter, HuffPost

Food-shaming is a common experience for Asian kids growing up in the U.S. “While food is a very important aspect of culture, I do think we need to connect it to social and political issues,” said professor Grace M. Cho.

If you’re part of the Asian American community and very online, you’re no doubt familiar with the “ethnic stinky lunch” narrative.

If you’re not familiar, the “stinky lunch” trope goes a little something like this: A kid brings something into the cafeteria that’s a different than the standard PB&J or ham sandwich ― beef bulgogi in Tupperware, for instance, or Spam musubi ― and is met with quizzical stares from classmates.

Sometimes the stares are accompanied by mean comments: “That stinks,” someone will mutter under their breath. “ Gross .” Other kids will go straight for the jugular and say something like, “Ugh, looks like you’re eating dog food.”

“I got very self-conscious, and when the teacher wasn’t looking, I would discreetly throw my food out into the trash and proceeded to do this for a week.” - Aydin Quach, a Ph.D. student in American Studies at the University of Southern California

Reflecting on the experience years later, stories about stinky lunches usually end with the writer reclaiming the narrative and saying that now they’re proud of their cultural dishes: Sure, the smell was pungent, but their lunch tasted loads better than Kyle’s turkey and cheese Lunchable. Plus, in these post-Anthony Bourdain “No Reservations”-days, beef bulgogi is trendy and as commonplace as a Big Mac.

Many a personal essay has been written about overcoming the trauma of being the Asian kid with the stinky lunch. Eddie Huang devoted a whole episode of his sitcom “Fresh off the Boat” to the lead character wanting to bring in “white people lunch.”

Food-shaming along these lines is so common for Asian kids growing up in the U.S., that even homeschooled kids can’t escape it.

Jennifer LeMesurier is a Korean American who was adopted by white parents and though she was homeschooled most of her life, she still has a story.

LeMesurier ― an associate professor of writing and rhetoric at Colgate University in Hamilton, New York, and the author of “Inscrutable Eating: Asian Appetites and the Rhetorics of Racial Consumption” ― recalls going on a group trip with other homeschooled kids in first grade to Uwajimaya Asian Market in Seattle.

Though it was very much an “expand your horizons”-type of trip, LeMesurier said the minute the kids got to the tanks of live crabs and shellfish, the whole group erupted in a loud, collective squeal of “eww!”

“I remember I felt both confused as to why everyone else was being so rude, and embarrassed as the one Asian kid in the group,” she told HuffPost.

“Since I looked more like the people working behind the counter than my classmates, all of a sudden I didn’t know where my allegiance was supposed to be,” she said.

Getting food-shamed at school has become such a canonical experience for Asian Americans in Western countries ― in many ways, it’s similar to the “all Asians look alike” shared experience ― some wonder if it’s time we retire conversations about it. As many see it, it’s an easily digestible story that ends on a satisfying note, especially for white audiences: Asian food is now hip and embraced! It’s good we’ve moved past that!

As Eater correspondent Jaya Saxena wrote in an essay for the site :

The lunchbox moment doesn’t require the reader to think about how class, religion, or caste could all change an immigrant’s experience. It doesn’t point out all the invisible ways immigrants and people of color are made to feel unwelcome. It doesn’t allow for muted or shifting feelings, or the complications of systemic racism. It’s just the hard clarity of Us v. Them, Shame v. Triumph, a white boy telling you you’re gross and a different white boy telling you he actually likes lumpia.

Others argue that there are more pressing issues of racism that Asian Americans, who are underrepresented in public office , management positions and in the media , are facing today. One in 10 Asian Americans lives in poverty , but their experiences tend to fall through the cracks since we’re more comfortable telling “Crazy Rich Asian” stories.

Grace M. Cho, a professor of sociology and anthropology at the CUNY College of Staten Island and the author of “Tastes Like War: A Memoir,” thinks it would be helpful for conversations about stinky lunches to segue into topics more complex. Now that there’s a greater appreciation among the general public for immigrant cuisines, we should be more comfortable engaging critically with thornier topics.

“While food is a very important aspect of culture, I do think we need to connect it to social and political issues,” she told HuffPost. “Is the cuisine just being appropriated or commodified while the people of that culture are still marginalized and their home countries are being ravaged by American foreign policy?”

She thinks the stinky lunch as a pop culture trope could be used as a way of hiding or minimizing these power dynamics.

Others argue that the “smelly lunch” narrative doesn’t truthfully represent the experiences of all Asians growing up in Northern America. We’re not a monolith, after all; in more racially and ethnically diverse areas ― with Trader Joe’s stores that carry kimchi and tteok bok ki ― a child of Asian descent today is just as likely to be envied if they bring in something from their culture.

Today, kids tend to have a more expansive food palate, at least in coastal cities.

Aydin Quach, a Ph.D. student in American Studies at the University of Southern California, grew up in Vancouver, Canada, and his experiences with “smelly” lunches largely invert the trope.

“I remember many of my friends and me opening our lunchboxes to dumplings with vinegar, to kimchi, to spring rolls with fish sauce, curry and naan, and many of our non-Asian classmates being not just very curious, but also jealous of our lunch menus,” said Quach, who’s of Chinese, Bruneian, Malaysian and Vietnamese descent.

When it came time for class parties and the classroom was given a food choice, the students overwhelmingly always asked for Asian food.

“I remember many times in school where moms would bring in trays of spring rolls along with a big bucket of fish sauce for the class,” he said. “Other times, it would be lumpia. Sometimes, it was an array of dosas.”

As refreshing as that is, Quach still thinks conversations about this topic ― clichéd as they might come across to some ― are worth sharing.

He still remembers how it made him feel the one time he was called out for bringing something “stinky” into the cafeteria ― in his case, dumplings with vinegar.

“I got very self-conscious, and when the teacher wasn’t looking, I would discreetly throw my food out into the trash,” he said. “I proceeded to do this for a week until the same kid who said my food was stinky said he wanted to try my lunch and then said he loved it.”

Even so, that experience of throwing out his food, starving the rest of the school day and then lying to his parents about finishing his food has stuck with Quach to this day.

“It made me feel physically sick and also took a toll on my mental health even at that young an age,” he said. “It hurts kids when they hear that because they start developing very dissonant experiences with their food, with their bodies, and with their families.”

Kids are smart, Quach said, and can read between the lines and know that something smelly means that there is some other, more exacting message being conveyed.

Food and the experience of eating is so intimate ― the idea that “you are what you eat” is relevant here ― that negative comments like these can easily cut to the quick.

"It hurts kids when they hear that because they start developing very dissonant experiences with their food, with their bodies, and with their families," said Aydin Quach, a Ph.D. student in American Studies at the University of Southern California.

Alex, a Vietnamese American who asked to use his first name only for privacy and who goes by @sadguyalex online, said he often felt othered when bringing in things like thịt kho or sườn ram (think caramelized and braised pork with rice), spring rolls/gỏi cuốn, chả lụa and rice with whatever leftover vegetable and meats were available from dinner the night before.

Most comments were from kids with harmless curiosity about his food, but other remarks embarrassed him. (“Why would you eat something that smells?” or “That looks gross to me.”)

“Learning that others have preconceptions about you, and possibly negative ones, when you’re still trying to piece together your identity when you’re a kid can be equally memorable and devastating,” he said.

Given those lived experiences, he still thinks there’s value in sharing “stinky lunch” stories, even if people on Twitter are sick of them.

“I also feel like a lot of times we can end up discussing topics like the smelly lunch thing from a really academic angle that can feel closed off, inaccessible, and condescending,” Alex said.

“I think it’s just nice to keep in mind that there are people in the community who might not know as much as you or can’t articulate their thoughts as eloquently as you, or just need a place to start off,” he said. “Maybe that starting place is the stinky lunch narrative, and they should have the space to do that.”

Plus, the sad truth is that kids are still getting bullied for their ethnic lunches, even in today’s more multicultural world. Not everyone lives on the coasts with huge H Marts where Asian ingredients are readily available.

"Food and identity are deeply intertwined, both as matters of personal identity and as how others perceive us," said writer Jennifer LeMesurier. "It’s always important to remember that how we talk about both matters a lot."

Even adults still get singled out when they bring leftovers in at work. U.K. writer Natali Simmonds distinctly remembers a Chinese colleague of hers being told by management to stop heating her food in the microwave as it was “stinking out the office.”

The incident hit home because Simmonds, the daughter of Spanish immigrants, got side-eyed as a kid when she’d bring in her bagged lunches of salami, olives and pate.

“We’ve evolved considerably in the last 20 years when it comes to accepting others ― be it their religion, ethnicity, sexuality or lifestyle choices ― but it doesn’t take much to make someone feel ‘othered,’” she told HuffPost. “Pointing out someone’s food will do that.”

She and others we spoke to think we can still talk about smelly lunch microaggressions while engaging critically with meatier topics. There’s room for both conversations, and we may even be discounting how relevant stinky lunch discussions are.

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“The recent spike in hate crimes against Asian Americans during the height of COVID [shows] how easy it was for many to equate Asian eaters and food with disease and danger,” LeMesurier said.

Pandemic-era stigma ended up costing Asian restaurants $7.4 billion in lost revenue , a 2023 study published in the journal Nature Human Behaviour found.

“So are we asking if the ‘stinky lunch’ trope is tired because the narrative is getting in the way of seeing other social issues? Or are we dismissing racist beliefs because it’s ‘kid stuff’ and therefore not that big of a deal?” the professor said.

Plus, she added, even if it is a fading issue or a pop culture trope, that doesn’t mean past moments of shame around food that happened to people’s grandparents, parents and countless other immigrants don’t deserve to be heard.

“Food and identity are deeply intertwined, both as matters of personal identity and as how others perceive us,” LeMesurier said. “How we talk about both matters a lot.”

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Zelensky signs decree recognizing some Russian territories as historically inhabited by Ukrainians

Ukraine will take steps to research, publicize, and protect the histories of Ukrainians living in parts of modern-day Russia that have been historically inhabited by Ukrainians , according to a decree signed by President Volodymyr Zelensky on Jan. 22.

Zelensky announced he had signed the decree during his address on Unity Day, a national holiday celebrated on Jan. 22 that marks the unification of the Ukrainian People's Republic and the Western Ukrainian People's Republic in 1919 into one independent country.

The decree "On the Territories of the Russian Federation Historically Inhabited by Ukrainians" stipulates that the government should cooperate with international experts to create a plan "to preserve the national identity of Ukrainians" in specific territories of what is now Russia.

The decree listed the regions of Kuban, a historical region to the east of the Crimean Peninsula , Starodubshchyna, to the north of Chernihiv, and northern and eastern Slobozhanshchyna.

Also known as Sloboda Ukraine, Slobozhanshchyna was a significant and semi-autonomous region under Tsarist rule that extended across what is now northeastern Ukraine, predominantly Sumy, Kharkiv, and Luhansk oblasts, and southwestern Russia.

Krasnodar Krai covers most of what was once Kuban, while Starodubshchyna now lies predominantly in Bryansk Oblast .

The decree also declares that the government should preserve the history of Ukrainians in these regions. Their testimonies on the forced Russification , political repression , and deportations they suffered should be recorded, according to the decree.

More work should also be done to counter " disinformation and propaganda of the Russian Federation regarding the history and present of Ukrainians in Russia" and to develop relations between Ukrainians and other "peoples enslaved by Russia," the decree says.

The government should work with the National Academy of Sciences to develop materials about the "more than a thousand-year history of Ukrainian state formation, the historical connections of lands inhabited by ethnic Ukrainians, and Ukrainian national state formations in various historical periods."

The "true history of ethnic Ukrainians in the lands historically inhabited by them within the borders of the Russian Federation" should also be included in educational textbooks, according to the decree.

Read also: 2 years into full-scale war, Ukraine under pressure to draft hundreds of thousands of new soldiers

We’ve been working hard to bring you independent, locally-sourced news from Ukraine. Consider supporting the Kyiv Independent .

Home — Essay Samples — Nursing & Health — Nutrition — School Lunches Essay

School Lunches Essay

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History and Destruction of the Jewish Community of Bryansk, Russia

Essay by gennady levitsky.

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Russian Offensive Campaign Assessment, March 2, 2023

Kateryna Stepanenko, Riley Bailey, Grace Mappes, Angela Howard, George Barros, and Frederick W. Kagan

March 2, 8pm ET

Click here to see ISW’s interactive map of the Russian invasion of Ukraine. This map is updated daily alongside the static maps present in this report.

Click here to access ISW’s archive of interactive time-lapse maps of the Russian invasion of Ukraine. These maps complement the static control-of-terrain maps that ISW produces daily by showing a dynamic frontline. ISW will update this time-lapse map archive monthly.

The Kremlin accused Ukraine of conducting a border incursion in Bryansk Oblast, Russia on March 2 — a claim that Ukrainian officials denied. Bryansk Oblast Governor Alexander Bogomaz claimed that “several dozen” Ukrainian saboteurs conducted an armed incursion into the villages of Lyubenchane and Sushany on the international border.[1] The Russian Federal Security Service (FSB) doubled down on Bogomaz’s accusation and claimed that the Russian National Guard (Rosgvardia) conducted an operation to “eliminate” Ukrainian saboteurs who reportedly killed one individual and took up to six individuals hostage.[2] Russian milbloggers and news aggregators offered differing information about the number of casualties and hostages, including claims that Ukrainian saboteurs fired on a school bus.[3] Russian President Vladimir Putin then responded unusually quickly to these claims, alleging that “neo-Nazis and their owners” carried out a “terrorist attack” against Bryansk Oblast.[4] Putin did not directly name Ukraine as the perpetrator of the attack in his televised statement, prompting Russian state media to later clarify that Putin meant ”Ukrainian neo-Nazis.”[5] Putin also claimed that Russia will "crush” neo-Nazis that have consistently aimed to deprive Russia of its history, killed the daughter of Russian nationalist ideolog Alexander Dugin, and ”killed people in Donbas.”[6]

Ukrainian officials denied the Kremlin’s accusations of Ukraine’s involvement in Bryansk Oblast and claimed that Russian officials might be facing problems with increasing partisan activity in Russia. Ukrainian Presidential Adviser Mykhailo Podolyak stated that Russian accusations are a deliberate “provocation” aimed at scaring the Russian people into believing that Russia needs to continue to fight in Ukraine.[7] Representative of the Ukrainian Main Military Intelligence Directorate (GUR) Andriy Yusov stated that the incident in Bryansk Oblast is “part of transformative processes in Russia” and pointed to inter-ethnic, inter-religious, and socio-economic conflicts among Russian citizens in Russia.[8] Yusov also noted that the March 2 public statements of the Russian Volunteer Corps’, which claimed responsibility for the incursion, further show that “Russia is beginning to wake up against Putin’s bloody dictatorship.”[9] Yusov likely referred to two videos uploaded by Russian Volunteer Corps fighters claiming that they crossed the international border into Bryansk Oblast to “liberate” fellow Russian citizens from Putin’s dictatorship without harming Russian civilians.[10] The Russian Volunteer Corps claims to be an all-Russian, Ukraine-based armed formation operating under the Ukrainian Armed Forces; however, it is unclear if the group is affiliated with the Ukrainian military. The head of Dutch open-source investigative group Bellingcat's far-right monitoring project reported that the leader of the Russian Volunteer Corps, Denis Kapustin, is a notable far-right extremist figure.[11] Social media users geolocated one of the two videos showing two servicemen with the Russian Volunteer Corps flag to Sushany.[12] ISW cannot independently verify Russian, Ukrainian, or Russian Volunteer Corps’ claims at this time, and the two videos each showing two men in uniform holding a flag remains the only concrete evidence available that anything happened.

The Bryansk incident generated speculation by Russian officials and ultranationalist groups about the Kremlin’s response to the situation. Kremlin Spokesperson Dmitry Peskov refused to comment on questions regarding any change of the “special military operation” status to “war” because of the incident.[13] Wagner Group financier Yevgeny Prigozhin sarcastically observed that Russia had been allowing Ukraine to violate its “red lines” and used the opportunity to promote Wagner mercenaries.[14] Russian officials such as Crimean occupation head Sergey Aksyonov and Chechen leader Ramzan Kadyrov along with milbloggers called on the Kremlin to expand security measures and conduct retaliatory operations.[15] Kadyrov, for example, called on the Kremlin to target civilians to punish the perpetrators of this incident - effectively calling for Russia to conduct war crimes. Kremlin-affiliated milbloggers and former proxy officials also called on the Kremlin to designate the Ukrainian Armed Forces, the Russian Volunteer Corps, and Ukrainian armed organizations as terrorist organizations and compared the incident to the Beslan school siege in North Ossetia in 2004.[16] A Kremlin-affiliated milblogger claimed that the Russian Volunteer Corps was responsible for the murder of Daria Dugina and other terrorist activity in Russia.[17] Russian milbloggers also called on the Kremlin to use this incident to form a Supreme High Command to undertake all political, military, and economic decisions to ensure that Russia wins the war.[18] Other milbloggers also linked the incident to recent Putin statements that the FSB needs to strengthen border protection and advocated for more resources for border units.[19] Some milbloggers called on Russia to form assassination squads to kill Ukrainian officials and form exclusion zones at the border.[20] These responses indicate that the ultranationalist community is largely dissatisfied with numerous aspects of the Kremlin’s inability to fully commit to its own false rhetoric that Russia is fighting an “existential war” in Ukraine. The Kremlin does not have the capacity to satisfy all of these ultranationalists’ demands and may seize this opportunity to introduce additional security provisions in Russia that would benefit Putin without committing Russia to a higher risk or domestic unrest — such as declaring war.

German Chancellor Olaf Scholz stated on March 2 that Germany is negotiating with allies about providing security guarantees to Ukraine but provided no further details on these proposed guarantees. [21] Scholz emphasized that the pact would only work if Ukraine prevailed in the war. Scholz mentioned the security guarantees while criticizing China for failing to condemn the Russian invasion of Ukraine and calling on Chinese authorities to pressure Russia into withdrawing Russian forces from Ukraine. Scholz’s statements are consistent with reports of a proposed Ukraine-NATO defense pact that would provide enough arms to Ukraine to force Russia to the negotiation table, but would not offer Article V protection or obligate NATO states to deploy forces to Ukraine. ISW has recently assessed that such an agreement appears to reflect a desire to pressure Ukraine to accept a negotiated settlement on unfavorable terms, especially as Russian President Vladimir Putin is currently unlikely to compromise on his maximalist goals of demilitarization and de facto regime change in Ukraine.[22]

US Secretary of State Antony Blinken briefly spoke with Russian Foreign Minister Sergei Lavrov at the G20 summit in New Delhi, India on March 2 about Russia’s suspension of the New Strategic Offensive Arms Reduction Treaty (New START). [23] Blinken stated that he urged Lavrov to reverse Russia’s February 28 suspension of Russian cooperation with New START, which imposes verifiable limits on the number of Russian and US intercontinental-range nuclear weapons. Blinken expressed US readiness to collaborate with Russia on strategic nuclear arms control regardless of the status of the war in Ukraine or the US-Russia relationship.[24] Blinken separately called on Russia to stop its war in Ukraine and come to the negotiating table and to release detained American Paul Whelan.[25] Russian officials are highly unlikely to pursue meaningful discussions to restore New START, however. The Kremlin very probably is weaponizing fears of nuclear escalation and the suspension of New START in hopes of deterring Western support for Ukraine and slowing down pledged Western military aid transfers. The Kremlin remains extremely unlikely to use nuclear weapons but routinely makes low-credibility threats of nuclear escalation in an effort to intimidate the West and appeal to its ultranationalist base, as ISW has previously reported.[26]

Russian authorities appear to be concerned over a growing loss of leverage in Serbia, which Russia has worked to integrate into the Russian sphere of influence for many years. Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MFA) Spokesperson Maria Zakharova stated on March 2 that reports of Serbian authorities secretly transferring multiple-launch rocket systems (MLRS) ammunition to Ukraine are a matter of “deepest concern.”[27] Russian state-affiliated news aggregator Mash claimed on February 27 that Serbian defense company Krusik supplied over 3,500 Grad MLRS rockets to Ukraine but claimed that it is not clear that Krusik knew that Ukraine was the final buyer of the rockets.[28] Wagner Group financier Yevgeny Prigozhin responded to Serbian President Alexander Vucic’s prior complaint that Wagner Group is recruiting in Serbia, claiming that no Serbian personnel have served in Wagner Group in 2023 and characterizing Vucic as having “thrown a tantrum in vain.”[29] Vucic’s complaints about Wagner Group recruitment efforts in Serbia are one factor in Vucic’s possible reconsideration of Serbia’s close ties with Russia, as ISW has recently reported.[30]

Wagner Group financier Yevgeny Prigozhin and several Russian milbloggers continue to debate the appropriateness of criticism of Russian war efforts as they react to a proposed amendment to Russia’s Criminal Code which would increase punishments for “discrediting” the war in Ukraine. Prigozhin on March 1 defended his statements made earlier that day defending criticism of the war effort. Prigozhin claimed that Russians should have the right to criticize Russian commanders and strategists, including himself, but not to criticize or “discredit” ordinary soldiers.[31] Russian milblogger Yuri Kotyenok defended restrictions on “discreditation attempts,” arguing that criticism of Russian soldiers of all levels — from soldier to supreme commander — is like shooting them in the back. Kotyenok conceded that some criticism is necessary but said that it must be made carefully and in a limited way. Kotyenok added that Wagner Group representatives have earned the right to their “special opinion” due to their efficient fighting near Bakhmut.[32] Former Russian officer (and avid critic of Russian President Vladimir Putin) Igor Girkin feigned repentance on March 2 and mockingly instructed his users “not” to make statements calling Russian leadership “illiterate, irresponsible mediocrities” and telling them to refer to major failures as victories, offering as an example the “alternative successes” in Vuhledar.[33]

Key Takeaways

The Kremlin accused Ukraine of conducting a border incursion in Bryansk Oblast, Russia, on March 2 — a claim that Ukrainian officials denied.
The alleged Bryansk incident generated speculations from Russian officials and ultranationalist groups about the Kremlin's response to the situation.
German Chancellor Olaf Scholz stated on March 2 that Germany is negotiating with allies about providing security guarantees to Ukraine but provided no further details on these proposed guarantees.
US Secretary of State Antony Blinken briefly spoke with Russian Foreign Minister Sergei Lavrov at the G20 summit in New Delhi, India on March 2 about Russia’s suspension of the New Strategic Offensive Arms Reduction Treaty (New START). The Kremlin very probably is weaponizing New START and fears of nuclear escalation in hopes of deterring Western support for Ukraine.
Russian authorities appear to be concerned over a growing loss of leverage in Serbia, which Russia has worked to integrate into the Russian sphere of influence for many years.
Russian ultranationalists continue to debate the appropriateness of criticism of Russian war efforts and to react to proposed increased punishments for “discrediting” the war in Ukraine.
Russian forces continued limited ground attacks northeast of Kupyansk and offensive operations around Kreminna.
Russian forces continued offensive operations around Bakhmut, along the western outskirts of Donetsk City, and in western Donetsk Oblast.
Russian forces appear to have temporarily scaled back efforts to encircle Bakhmut from the southwest as well as from the northeast and may instead be focusing on pressuring Ukrainian forces to withdraw from the city by concentrating on the northeastern offensive.
Russian sources claimed that Russian forces downed two Ukrainian UAVs in Crimea.
Wagner Group financier Yevgeny Prigozhin announced that the Wagner Group has launched recruiting efforts through Russian sports clubs.
Russian occupation officials denied reports of the deportation of Ukrainian children to Russian territories.

We do not report in detail on Russian war crimes because those activities are well-covered in Western media and do not directly affect the military operations we are assessing and forecasting. We will continue to evaluate and report on the effects of these criminal activities on the Ukrainian military and population and specifically on combat in Ukrainian urban areas. We utterly condemn these Russian violations of the laws of armed conflict, Geneva Conventions, and humanity even though we do not describe them in these reports.

Russian Main Effort—Eastern Ukraine (comprised of two subordinate main efforts)
Russian Subordinate Main Effort #1—Capture the remainder of Luhansk Oblast and push westward into eastern Kharkiv Oblast and encircle northern Donetsk Oblast
Russian Subordinate Main Effort #2—Capture the entirety of Donetsk Oblast
Russian Supporting Effort—Southern Axis
Russian Mobilization and Force Generation Efforts
Activities in Russian-occupied Areas

Russian Main Effort—Eastern Ukraine

Russian Subordinate Main Effort #1— Luhansk Oblast ( Russian objective: Capture the remainder of Luhansk Oblast and continue offensive operations into eastern Kharkiv Oblast and northern Donetsk Oblast)

Russian forces continued limited attacks northeast of Kupyansk and are fortifying border positions in Belgorod Oblast. A Kremlin-affiliated milblogger claimed on March 1 that Russian forces repelled a Ukrainian attempt to regain positions in Hryanykivka (about 16km northeast of Kupyansk).[34] The Ukrainian General Staff reported on March 2 that Russian forces are continuing to fortify positions in border areas of Belgorod Oblast and are establishing anti-tank barriers.[35]

Russian forces continued offensive operations around Kreminna on March 2. The Ukrainian General Staff reported that Ukrainian forces repelled Russian assaults near Kreminna, Bilohorivka (about 13km south of Kreminna), and Spirne (about 32km south of Kreminna).[36] Russian war correspondents claimed that elements likely of the Russian 98th Guards Airborne Division from Ivanovo Oblast are attempting to advance through a densely defended frontline in the Kreminna direction.[37] Russian milbloggers also indicated that elements of the 3rd Guards SPETSNAZ Brigade and reconnaissance groups of the 144 th Guards Motor Rifle Division of the 20th Guards Combined Arms Army of the Western Military District are continuing to operate on the Svatove-Kreminna line.[38] A Kremlin-affiliated milblogger claimed that Russian artillery fire stopped a Ukrainian five-hour-long counteroffensive operation near Kreminna and that Russian airborne elements seized unspecified Ukrainian fortifications in the area on March 1.[39] Another Kremlin-affiliated milblogger claimed that Russian forces seized unspecified heights in the area of the Balka Zhuravka gully northwest of Kreminna.[40]

Luhansk Oblast Administration Head Serhiy Haidai reported that Russian forces have concentrated a significant portion of their heavy military equipment in Luhansk Oblast but have been unable to use most of it due to unfavorable weather conditions on the frontlines.[41] Haidai added that Russians are using Terminator armored fighting vehicles and T-90M tanks in the Kreminna direction, which indicates that Russian forces are continuing to prioritize this direction for an advance.[42] Haidai also stated that Russian efforts to attack in small groups on the Luhansk Oblast frontline are not successful, resulting in losses among personnel and military equipment.[43]

Russian Subordinate Main Effort #2—Donetsk Oblast (Russian objective: Capture the entirety of Donetsk Oblast, the claimed territory of Russia’s proxies in Donbas)

Russian forces continued offensive operations around Bakhmut on March 2. The Ukrainian General Staff reported that Ukrainian forces repelled Russian assaults near Bakhmut, Orikhovo-Vasylivka (11km northwest of Bakhmut), Dubovo-Vasylivka (7km northwest of Bakhmut), Khromove (3km west of Bakhmut), and Ivanivske (6km west of Bakhmut).[44] The repelled Russian assault near Khromove suggests that Russian forces have likely advanced northwest of Bakhmut. Geolocated footage published on March 2 indicates that Russian forces likely secured gains south of Dubovo-Vasylivka.[45] A Russian milblogger claimed that Wagner Group fighters advanced in the direction of Hryhorivka (10km northwest of Bakhmut) and Bohdanivka (6km west of Bakhmut) and conducted offensive operations near Fedorivka (17km north of Bakhmut), Rozdolivka (17km north of Bakhmut) and Vesele (18km northeast of Bakhmut).[46] Geolocated footage published on March 2 indicates that Russian forces have likely advanced in eastern Bakhmut.[47] Russian milbloggers claimed that Russian forces continued offensive operations in southern Bakhmut moving north from Opytne (4km south of Bakhmut), in the eastern part of the city, and in northern Bakhmut moving south from Yahidne (2km north of Bakhmut).[48] Geolocated footage published on March 2 indicates that Russian forces likely advanced near Bila Hora (13km southwest of Bakhmut).[49] Russian milbloggers claimed that Wagner fighters conducted attacks in the direction of Bila Hora and Chasiv Yar (12km west of Bakhmut) and are attempting to cut off a section of the T0504 highway.[50] The Donetsk People’s Republic (DNR) People’s Militia claimed that the DNR 132nd Brigade of the 1st Army Corps (formerly the DNR People’s Militia 3rd Brigade) advanced in the direction of Toretsk (22km southwest of Bakhmut).[51]

Russian forces appear to have temporarily scaled back efforts to encircle Bakhmut from the southwest as well as from the northeast and may instead be focusing on pressuring Ukrainian forces to withdraw from the city by concentrating on the northeastern offensive. Russian forces have intensified offensive operations in the northern outskirts and suburbs of Bakhmut in recent weeks and have secured gains in these areas.[52] Russian forces have not advanced closer to the T0504 highway between Bakhmut and Chasiv Yar in this time following a period of intensified operations southwest of Bakhmut in late January and early February of 2023.[53] Russian milbloggers have similarly shifted their attention from Russian operations to capture Ivanivske and positions along the T0504 highway to Russian operations in northern Bakhmut, particularly those focused on capturing Khromove.[54] Russian forces would likely need to capture both Ivanivske and Khromove to cut off Ukrainian ground lines of communication (GLOCs) into Bakhmut and completely encircle the Ukrainian grouping in the city. Russian forces may be attempting to pressure Ukrainian forces in Bakhmut to conduct a tactical retreat through the T0504 highway and therefore have reduced their efforts to encircle the settlement by capturing Ivanivske as well. The double envelopment of Bakhmut would likely require further manpower and equipment commitments and Russian forces may intend to avoid the further costs of a potential encirclement. Russian forces continue to attack along the T0504 line, however, and may resume more concerted efforts in this direction. Russian forces conducted a similar operational shift in their offensive to capture Severodonetsk and Lysychansk in Luhansk Oblast in June and July of 2022. Ukrainian forces in Severodonetsk and Lysychansk conducted controlled tactical retreats after sustaining increased pressure from Russian forces that initially intended to completely encircle Ukrainian forces in the settlements.[55]

Ukrainian officials are setting informational conditions for a potential withdrawal from Bakhmut but have not indicated that Ukrainian forces intend to leave the city. Ukrainian Eastern Grouping of Forces Spokesperson Colonel Serhiy Cherevaty stated on March 2 that Ukrainian forces will conduct a tactical retreat from Bakhmut if there is a need to do so.[56] Cherevaty stated that Ukrainian forces’ main focus is to achieve strategic results and recalled that Ukrainian forces liberated large amounts of territory in Kharkiv Oblast and around Lyman, Donetsk Oblast following Russia’s costly offensive to capture Severodonetsk and Lysychansk in Luhansk Oblast.[57] ISW has previously assessed that the Ukrainian defense of Bakhmut is a strategically sound operation to force Russian forces to extend manpower and equipment on costly assaults to capture a city of limited operational importance.[58] Ukrainian forces have already achieved this strategic aim, and the continued Ukrainian defense of the city will remain strategically sound as long as the costs of holding the city do not outweigh the continued impacts on Russian manpower and equipment. Ukrainian officials continue to emphasize that Ukrainian forces have the option to conduct a controlled withdrawal from Bakhmut if they see fit.[59]

Russian forces continued offensive operations along the western outskirts of Donetsk City on March 2. The Ukrainian General Staff reported that Russian forces conducted unsuccessful offensive operations near Avdiivka, within 7km northeast of Avdiivka near Kamianka and Vesele, and within 27km southwest of Avdiivka near Sieverne, Vodyane, Nevelske, and Marinka.[60] Geolocated footage published on March 2 indicates that Russian forces likely secured marginal gains northeast of Vodyane (8km southwest of Avdiivka).[61] A Russian milblogger claimed that elements of the 150th Motorized Rifle Division of the 8th Combined Arms Army of the Southern Military District are continuing to storm Ukrainian positions in Marinka and that elements of the 20th Motorized Rifle Division of the 8th Combined Arms Army are attempting to advance south of the city.[62] A Russian milblogger claimed that Russian forces also conducted an assault on Pervomaiske (12km southwest of Avdiivka) from Pisky (9km southwest of Avdiivka).[63]

Russian forces continued offensive operations in western Donetsk Oblast on March 2. Geolocated footage published on March 1 indicates that Russian forces likely made marginal advances near Vuhledar (30km southwest of Donetsk City).[64] The Ukrainian General Staff reported on March 2 that Russian forces continue to conduct offensive operations in western Donetsk Oblast and are trying to create conditions to conduct further offensive operations in unspecified areas of this section of the frontline.[65] Ukrainian soldiers stated on March 1 that Russian forces conduct assaults near Vuhledar at least five times a day in small groups of 10 soldiers or fewer but are largely on the defensive in the area.[66] The use of squad-size assault groups and significant Russian personnel and equipment losses in previous mechanized assaults near Vuhledar will likely continue to constrain Russian forces from securing any significant gains in the Vuhledar area.[67]

Supporting Effort—Southern Axis (Russian objective: Maintain frontline positions and secure rear areas against Ukrainian strikes)

Russian forces continued to conduct routine fire west of Hulyaipole and in Kherson, Mykolaiv, and Dnipropetrovsk oblasts on March 2.[68] Ukrainian officials reported that Russian forces struck a residential area in Zaporizhzhia City with an S-300 missile, but Russian milbloggers claimed the missile was a Ukrainian air defense missile.[69] The Ukrainian General Staff reported that Russian forces continue to try to create conditions for offensive operations in an unspecified area of southern Ukraine.[70] ISW has not observed indicators that Russian forces are preparing to resume a sustained offensive effort in Zaporizhia Oblast or any offensive effort in Kherson Oblast.

Russian sources claimed that Russian forces downed two Ukrainian UAVs that targeted an unspecified Russian military unit in Saky, Crimea overnight.[71] Russian sources, including the Russian Ministry of Defense, claimed that Russian forces downed 10 Ukrainian UAVs targeting Saky and Yevpatoria (20km northwest of Saky) on March 1.[72]

Wagner Group financier Yevgeny Prigozhin announced on March 2 that the Wagner Group has launched recruiting efforts through Russian sports clubs. Prigozhin claimed that Wagner has established an unspecified number of recruitment centers at sports clubs in several Russian cities to check recruits’ fitness and guide them through the recruitment process.[73] This effort likely represents a youth-targeted expansion of ongoing Wagner recruitment efforts. The New America Foundation observed that Wagner Group’s organizational recruitment structures mirror those employed by the All-Russian Organization-Voluntary Society for Assistance to the Army, Aviation, and Navy of Russia (DOSAAF), a key manager of recruitment for Russian military reserves and former Soviet-era youth movement. The New American Foundation also identified ties between the Wagner Group, other ultranationalist recruitment groups, and DOSAAF.[74]

Chechen Republic Head Ramzan Kadyrov announced on March 2 that Pskov Oblast officials plan to open an institution in Pskov Oblast to mirror Chechnya’s Special Forces (SPETSNAZ) University in Gudermes, Chechnya.[75] Kadyrov also publicized that he met with Pskov Oblast Governor Mikhail Vedernikov and visited the SPETSNAZ University with him.[76] Kadyrov’s promotion of this effort likely demonstrates his desire to expand his influence within Russia and promote the “superior quality” of techniques employed by Chechen fighters. Kadyrov claimed that the institution will train special units in Pskov Oblast and that several Pskov Oblast instructors are undergoing training at the SPETSNAZ University.[77] Pskov Oblast notably hosts Russia's 76th Guards Air Assault Division, which was considered elite prior to suffering devastating defeats and losses in Ukraine in 2022.[78]

Russian commanders continue efforts to silence units of mobilized soldiers recording complaints and appeals to Russian authorities for better treatment. A regional Russian Telegram channel stated that Russian commanders on March 1 sent mobilized soldiers from Irkutsk Oblast, Regiment 1439, to storm Avdiivka despite Irkustk Oblast Governor Igor Kobzev’s February 26 promise to transfer the soldiers to a new duty station.[79] The soldiers’ relatives claimed the soldiers expected a transfer to defensive positions. The regional source also cited the wife of a mobilized soldier from Angarsk, Irkutsk Oblast who claimed that Russian officers on February 27 seized and searched the phones of mobilized soldiers from Irkutsk Oblast to find recorded video appeals to Russian President Vladimir Putin.[80] The woman claimed that Russian authorities launched an intimidation campaign to force the unwilling mobilized soldiers into battle by cutting off their communications, electricity, and water and threatening them with criminal penalties.[81]

Russian authorities continue to prosecute limited domestic resistance to mobilization and the war in Ukraine. A Yekaterinburg local source reported on March 1 that Russian authorities arrested two local college students following media reports that they attempted to assemble an explosive device and distributed “pro-Ukrainian leaflets.”[82] Two prominent milbloggers shared footage on March 2 allegedly showing Russian Federal Security Service (FSB) agents detaining a Khaborovsk Krai resident suspected of treason for contacting Ukrainian intelligence services with information about nearby military facilities.[83] A Saint Petersburg local source reported on March 1 that members of the Russian National Guard (Rosgvardia) detained a local student after he threw a Molotov cocktail, which failed to explode, at the door of an unspecified military enlistment office.[84]

Activity in Russian-occupied Areas (Russian objective: consolidate administrative control of and annexed areas; forcibly integrate Ukrainian civilians into Russian sociocultural, economic, military, and governance systems)

Russian occupation officials denied reports of Russian forced relocations and deportations of Ukrainian children to Russia amid continued efforts to forcibly integrate Ukrainian children into Russian culture. Kherson Oblast occupation head Vladimir Saldo claimed that Ukrainian reports of forced relocations of Ukrainian children are an information operation designed to sow panic among civilians about the locations of their loved ones.[85] ISW and various US government, NGOs, and international organizations have reported extensively on Russia’s sustained effort to forcibly relocate Ukrainian civilians, including children, to Russia and occupied Crimea.[86] Saldo claimed that 90 Ukrainian children currently attend the “Radiant” children’s health camp in occupied Yevpatoria, Crimea.[87] Zaporizhia Oblast occupation head Yevgeny Balitsky announced that occupation authorities opened 67 branches of the Russian state-affiliated “Movement of the First,” which is based on “traditional Russian spiritual and moral goals,” in schools in occupied Zaporizhia Oblast.[88] The Ukrainian General Staff reported that Kherson Oblast occupation authorities introduced mandatory cadet classes in occupied schools and that children as young as six must take Russian military-patriotic education classes.[89]

CNN reported on March 2 that Russian occupation authorities established a complex and widespread network and methodology of torturing Ukrainian civilians to coerce cooperation with Russian authorities, citing investigators and survivors of Russian torture.[90] CNN reported that Russian occupation authorities established a three-stage law enforcement crackdown, first detaining and even killing those identified as most capable of resisting, then detaining and deporting Ukrainians with lesser resistance affiliations, and finally cracking down against Ukrainian identity and cultural displays while promoting Russian identities and patriotism. CNN reported that Russian authorities established at least 20 torture centers in occupied areas as part of a dedicated campaign to “extinguish” the Ukrainian identity. CNN reported that Russian occupation authorities conducted more extensive coercion efforts in Kherson City than in areas like Bucha, Kyiv Oblast due to the length of Russian occupation.

Significant activity in Belarus (ISW assesses that a Russian or Belarusian attack into northern Ukraine in early 2023 is extraordinarily unlikely and has thus restructured this section of the update. It will no longer include counter-indicators for such an offensive.

ISW will continue to report daily observed Russian and Belarusian military activity in Belarus, but these are not indicators that Russian and Belarusian forces are preparing for an imminent attack on Ukraine from Belarus. ISW will revise this text and its assessment if it observes any unambiguous indicators that Russia or Belarus is preparing to attack northern Ukraine.)

Russian soldiers and equipment in Belarus reportedly deployed towards Ilovaisk in Donetsk Oblast. Independent Belarusian monitoring organization The Hajun Project reported on March 2 that two trains with Russian military equipment and personnel departed Belarus in the direction of Donetsk Oblast.[91] The first train departed Belarus on February 28 and is scheduled to arrive at the Matveev Kurgan station in Rostov Oblast, Russia on March 7, where the equipment will reportedly deploy further to Ilovaisk in Donetsk Oblast.[92] The second train departed Belarus on March 1 and should arrive at the Neklinivka station in Rostov Oblast on March 8 and also deploy further to Ilovaisk.[93] Russian deployments towards Ilovaisk could support future Russian offensive operations near Avdiivka.

Belarusian maneuver elements continue conducting exercises in Belarus. Elements of the Belarusian 11 th Separate Guards Mechanized Brigade conducted a company tactical exercise with live fires and UAVs at the Chepelevo Training Ground in Grodno Oblast, Belarus on March 2.[94]

Damage to the Russian Aerospace Forces Beriev A-50 airborne early warning and control plane at the Machulishchi Air Base in Minsk, Belarus, remains unclear as of March 2. The Belarusian Ministry of Defense posted a video of the A-50 taking off from the airfield on March 2 and claimed the plane is fully operational.[95] Social media users seemingly also viewed the aircraft departing from the airfield on March 2.[96] It remains unclear if the reported Belarusian partisan attack against the plane damaged the A-50's radar dish.

Note: ISW does not receive any classified material from any source, uses only publicly available information, and draws extensively on Russian, Ukrainian, and Western reporting and social media as well as commercially available satellite imagery and other geospatial data as the basis for these reports. References to all sources used are provided in the endnotes of each update.

[1] https://t.me/tass_agency/182769

[2] https://t.me/tass_agency/182766; https://t.me/tass_agency/182769 ; https://t.me/razvozhaev/2183 ; https://t.me/readovkanews/53908; https://t.me/readovkanews/53884 ; https://t.me/boris_rozhin/79471 ; https://t.me/boris_rozhin/79473; https://t.me/avbogomaz/2026; https://t.me/avbogomaz/2029; https://t.me/avbogomaz/2030; https://t.me/wargonzo/11193 ; https://t.me/rybar/44153 ; https://t.me/warfakes/12095; https://t.me/vladlentatarsky/19695

[3] https://t.me/voenkorKotenok/45759 ; https://t.me/milinfolive/97540 ;

[4] https://www.rferl.org/a/ukraine-kremlin-russia-border-incursion-zelenskiy/32296148.html; https://t.me/shot_shot/48832

[5] https://t.me/rian_ru/195843

[6] https://tass dot ru/politika/17181273

[7] https://twitter.com/Podolyak_M/status/1631241384291172357 ; https://t.me/M_Podolyak/128

[8] https://suspilne dot media/401708-gur-podii-u-branskij-oblasti-vnutrisne-protistoanna-miz-gromadanami-rosii/; https://www.yahoo.com/news/incident-bryansk-oblast-part-transformative-162400150.html?guccounter=1&guce_referrer=aHR0cHM6Ly93d3cuZ29vZ2xlLmNvbS8&guce_referrer_sig=AQAAABp0nvwojuTVuRvap129Ed-6DEKxMGKPLZflHbKn35TCGeGrCuI-K6b-IWCqE4PGcAOAXmkSGTCnUW7DF2xVwdBRMB0PLlLgAgehQMEls6otDSKK7AfaGfrxkvZX42d8vOqakQRkZfT-JPfKQwJu022wbn_nG86g5_ePDrJk4sl9

[9] https://suspilne dot media/401708-gur-podii-u-branskij-oblasti-vnutrisne-protistoanna-miz-gromadanami-rosii/

[10] https://twitter.com/Danspiun/status/1631265641431695363?s=20; https://twitter.com/Danspiun/status/1631265641431695363?s=20; https://t.me/russvolcorps/424

[11] https://twitter.com/ColborneMichael/status/1631290704625319939 ; https://twitter.com/ColborneMichael/status/1631290707255218177 ; https://twitter.com/ColborneMichael/status/1631290709293531136

[12] https://twitter.com/Danspiun/status/1631265641431695363?s=20

[13] https://tass dot com/politics/1583839

[14] https://t.me/grey_zone/17515; https://t.me/concordgroup_official/541; https://t.me/concordgroup_official/540

[15] https://t.me/Aksenov82/2171; https://t.me/RKadyrov_95/3406; https://t.me/vysokygovorit/10909

[16] https://t.me/president_sovet/2581 ; https://t.me/basurin_e/56 ; https://t.me/basurin_e/57; https://t.me/miroshnik_r/10675 ; https://t.me/ramzayiegokomanda/1886; https://t.me/readovkanews/53897; https://t.me/boris_rozhin/79473; https://t.me/boris_rozhin/79474; https://t.me/epoddubny/15056 ; https://t.me/epoddubny/15055 ; https://t.me/epoddubny/15057 ; https://t.me/epoddubny/15058; https://t.me/sashakots/38706

[17] https://t.me/rybar/44156; https://t.me/bazabazon/16143; https://t.me/bazabazon/16137; https://t.me/bazabazon/16136

[18] https://t.me/voenkorKotenok/45771

[19] https://t.me/notes_veterans/8310; https://t.me/wargonzo/11201; https://t.me/grey_zone/17516

[20] https://t.me/vysokygovorit/10908 ; https://t.me/vysokygovorit/10911

[21] https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/germanys-scholz-china-dont-arm-russia-talk-ukraine-peace-plan-2023-03-02/

[22] https://www.understandingwar.org/backgrounder/russian-offensive-campaign-assessment-february-25-2023

[23] https://edition.cnn.com/europe/live-news/russia-ukraine-war-news-03-2-23/index.html; https://suspilne dot media/401276-minoboroni-opriludnilo-novi-zarplati-vijskovih-ssa-perekinuli-v-islandiu-litak-sudnogo-dna-372-den-vijni-onlajn/; https://meduza dot io/news/2023/03/02/blinken-i-lavrov-vstretilis-lichno-vpervye-s-nachala-voyny; https://twitter.com/komadovsky/status/1631283562048569346?s=20; https://www.nytimes.com/live/2023/03/02/world/russia-ukraine-g20-news?smid=url-share#the-blinken-lavrov-meeting-suggests-the-us-wants-to-keep-lines-of-communication-open-with-russia; https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2023/03/02/blinken-lavrov-g20-russia/

[24] https://edition.cnn.com/europe/live-news/russia-ukraine-war-news-03-2-23/index.html; https://suspilne dot media/401276-minoboroni-opriludnilo-novi-zarplati-vijskovih-ssa-perekinuli-v-islandiu-litak-sudnogo-dna-372-den-vijni-onlajn/; https://meduza dot io/news/2023/03/02/blinken-i-lavrov-vstretilis-lichno-vpervye-s-nachala-voyny

[25] https://edition.cnn.com/europe/live-news/russia-ukraine-war-news-03-2-23/index.html; https://suspilne dot media/401276-minoboroni-opriludnilo-novi-zarplati-vijskovih-ssa-perekinuli-v-islandiu-litak-sudnogo-dna-372-den-vijni-onlajn/; https://meduza dot io/news/2023/03/02/blinken-i-lavrov-vstretilis-lichno-vpervye-s-nachala-voyny; https://apnews.com/article/us-russia-ukraine-g20-blinken-lavrov-1af60a2c2918e9c0777b33b3e71bd54b?utm_source=homepage&utm_medium=RelatedStories&utm_campaign=position_01

[26] https://www.understandingwar.org/sites/default/files/Russian%20Offensive%20Campaign%20Assessment%2C%20February%205%2C%202023_0.pdf; https://understandingwar.org/backgrounder/russian-offensive-campaign-assessment-february-28-2023; https://www.understandingwar.org/sites/default/files/Russian%20Offensive%20Campaign%20Assessment%2C%20February%205%2C%202023_0.pdf

[27] https://lenta dot ru/news/2023/03/02/prichastna/

[28] https://t.me/breakingmash/42112

[29] https://t.me/concordgroup_official/537

[30] https://www.understandingwar.org/backgrounder/russian-offensive-campaign-assessment-march-1-2023

[31] https://t.me/concordgroup_official/538

[32] https://t.me/voenkorKotenok/45748

[33] https://t.me/strelkovii/4111; https://t.me/strelkovii/4110; https://t.me/strelkovii/4100

[34] https://t.me/rybar/44128

[35] https://www.facebook.com/GeneralStaff.ua/videos/202955285652690/

[36] https://www.facebook.com/GeneralStaff.ua/videos/202955285652690/; https://www.facebook.com/GeneralStaff.ua/posts/pfbid0ZUf4B8YGjFgLAWudppgTvd2c7sQotDvV3WQQFANenRKvqifbHQ4g4Dg7aEHKpMUVl

[37] https://t.me/zhdanovrt/1289; https://t.me/boris_rozhin/79435

[38] https://t.me/vysokygovorit/10907; https://t.me/boris_rozhin/79470

[39] https://t.me/sashakots/38695

[40] https://t.me/rybar/44128

[41] https://t.me/luhanskaVTSA/9018

[42] https://t.me/luhanskaVTSA/9018

[43] https://t.me/serhiy_hayday/9565

[44] https://www.facebook.com/GeneralStaff.ua/posts/pfbid0ZUf4B8YGjFgLAWudppgTvd2c7sQotDvV3WQQFANenRKvqifbHQ4g4Dg7aEHKpMUVl ;

[45] https://twitter.com/RedIntelPanda/status/1631356268374810633 ; https://twitter.com/DzevelinB/status/1631343435851472928 ;

[46] https://t.me/wargonzo/11180

[47] https://twitter.com/chris__759/status/1631262469308940289; https://twitter.com/WarMonitors/status/1631238853062164481 ; https://twitter.com/Militarylandnet/status/1631269767351787521?s=20

[48] https://t.me/brussinf/5712 ; https://t.me/wargonzo/11180

[49] https://twitter.com/PaulJawin/status/1631225834529759238; https://twitter.com/PauliusZaleckas/status/1631324420223451136

[50] https://t.me/wargonzo/11180 ; https://t.me/boris_rozhin/79481

[51] https://t.me/nm_dnr/9960

[52] https://isw.pub/UkrWar022823 ; https://isw.pub/UkrWar022523 ; https://isw.pub/UkrWar02242023 ; https://isw.pub/UkrWar022223 ; https://isw.pub/UkrWar022123

[53] https://isw.pub/UkrWar01192023 ; https://isw.pub/UkrWar012123 ; https://isw.pub/UkrWar012423

[54] https://t.me/rybar/44128 ; https://t.me/rybar/44088 ; https://t.me/boris_rozhin/79382 ; https://t.me/voenkorKotenok/45733 ; https://t.me/readovkanews/53706 ; https://t.me/voenkorKotenok/45705 ; https://t.me/wargonzo/11114 ; https://t.me/boris_rozhin/79160 ; https://t.me/boris_rozhin/79161 ; https://t.me/milchronicles/1604 ; https://t.me/epoddubny/15011 ; https://t.me/rybar/43973 ; https://t.me/boris_rozhin/78835 ; https://t.me/voenkorKotenok/45550

[55] https://isw.pub/RusCampaignJuly3 ; https://www.understandingwar.org/backgrounder/ukraine-conflict-updates-2022

[56] https://armyinform dot com.ua/2023/03/02/nashi-shtaby-nashe-komanduvannya-zavzhdy-peregravaly-protyvnyka-sergij-cherevatyj/

[57] https://armyinform dot com.ua/2023/03/02/nashi-shtaby-nashe-komanduvannya-zavzhdy-peregravaly-protyvnyka-sergij-cherevatyj/

[58] https://isw.pub/UkrWar021423

[59] https://www.understandingwar.org/backgrounder/russian-offensive-campaign-assessment-march-1-2023

[60] https://www.facebook.com/GeneralStaff.ua/posts/pfbid0ZUf4B8YGjFgLAWudppgTvd2c7sQotDvV3WQQFANenRKvqifbHQ4g4Dg7aEHKpMUVl ; https://www.facebook.com/GeneralStaff.ua/videos/202955285652690/

[61] https://twitter.com/operativno_ZSU/status/1631343922919219229; https://twitter.com/JonHallin/status/1631355165411274752 ; https://twitter.com/Militarylandnet/status/1631359678041976833?s=20; https://m.facebook.com/story.php?story_fbid=pfbid02HzQK8xwoTTfMiqkkwUy96TgzvBiamxBMwsEiUdFZgv63gFJqk8V9HfV9rG13BJzBl&id=100068982227232&eav=AfZhnSlYWa_XyE9NiJ1TUhbQvebNgBfpr6vmw0mdfemOP_P4Ivj1xGYYHHRlpG9UXXU&m_entstream_source=timeline&paipv=0; https://twitter.com/bayraktar_1love/status/1631351804863602699?s=20

[62] https://t.me/rybar/44165 ; https://t.me/rusvarg/1338

[63] https://t.me/wargonzo/11180

[64] https://twitter.com/klinger66/status/1631093163346599936; https://twitter.com/SerDer_Daniels/status/1631014952835207176

[65] https://www.facebook.com/GeneralStaff.ua/posts/pfbid0ZUf4B8YGjFgLAWudppgTvd2c7sQotDvV3WQQFANenRKvqifbHQ4g4Dg7aEHKpMUVl

[66] https://youtu.be/lD1lrHHEhkQ

[67] https://www.understandingwar.org/backgrounder/russian-offensive-campaign-assessment-march-1-2023

[68] https://www.facebook.com/GeneralStaff.ua/posts/pfbid0ZUf4B8YGjFgLAWudppgTvd2c7sQotDvV3WQQFANenRKvqifbHQ4g4Dg7aEHKpMUVl; https://www.facebook.com/GeneralStaff.ua/videos/202955285652690/

[69] https://t.me/V_Zelenskiy_official/5334; https://t.me/orlovdmytroEn/1766; https://t.me/rybar/44136; https://t.me/vrogov/7945; https://t.me/vrogov/7934; https://www.facebook.com/OperationalCommandSouth/posts/pfbid0LsAg9fKpWb1E2i5PbTTiXdG4d69f8oMb2ddmA1kYkH7rxGnXWRr8jYa54PSg2CTLl

[70] https://www.facebook.com/GeneralStaff.ua/posts/pfbid0ZUf4B8YGjFgLAWudppgTvd2c7sQotDvV3WQQFANenRKvqifbHQ4g4Dg7aEHKpMUVl; https://www.facebook.com/GeneralStaff.ua/videos/202955285652690/; https://t.me/rybar/44136; https://t.me/rybar/44136; https://t.me/khersonskaODA/4080; https://t.me/ermaka2022/2151; https://www.facebook.com/OperationalCommandSouth/posts/pfbid0LsAg9fKpWb1E2i5PbTTiXdG4d69f8oMb2ddmA1kYkH7rxGnXWRr8jYa54PSg2CTLl; https://t.me/mykolaivskaODA/4425; https://t.me/zoda_gov_ua/17109; https://t.me/dnipropetrovskaODA/3391; https://t.me/dnipropetrovskaODA/3395; https://t.me/mykola_lukashuk/3658

[71] https://t.me/bazabazon/16118; https://t.me/boris_rozhin/79456; https://t.me/voenkorKotenok/45751

[72] https://www.understandingwar.org/backgrounder/russian-offensive-campaign-assessment-march-1-2023

[73] https://t.me/concordgroup_official/542

[74] https://www.newamerica.org/future-frontlines/reports/putin-mobilization-wagner-group/

[75] https://t.me/RKadyrov_95/3404

[76] https://t.me/RKadyrov_95/3404

[77] https://t.me/RKadyrov_95/3404

[78] https://www.newsweek.com/ukraine-russia-pskov-assault-brigade-1713444

[79] https://t.me/Baikal_People/2042; https://notes.citeam.org/mobilization-feb-28-mar-1

[80] https://t.me/Baikal_People/2044

[81] https://t.me/Baikal_People/2044

[82] https://t.me/itsmycity/25499

[83] https://t.me/boris_rozhin/79468; https://t.me/rybar/44142

[84] https://t.me/paperpaper_ru/34063; https://notes.citeam.org/mobilization-feb-28-mar-1

[85] https://t.me/SALDO_VGA/502

[86] https://www.state.gov/russias-filtration-operations-and-forced-relocations/#:~:text=There%20is%20evidence%20that%20Russia's,to%20remote%20regions%20in%20Russia; https://www.hrw.org/news/2022/09/01/forcible-transfer-ukrainians-russia; https://www.csis.org/analysis/update-forced-displacement-around-ukraine; https://www.ohchr.org/en/statements/2022/09/human-rights-concerns-related-forced-displacement-ukraine; https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2022/07/13/ukraine-russia-forced-deportation-antony-blinken/; https://euaa.europa.eu/sites/default/files/publications/2022-11/2022_11_09_Forced_Displacement_Ukraine_Joint_Report_EUAA_IOM_OECD_0.pdf; https://understandingwar.org/backgrounder/russian-offensive-campaign-assessment-january-13-2023; https://www.understandingwar.org/backgrounder/russian-offensive-campaign-assessment-november-4; https://understandingwar.org/sites/default/files/Russian%20Offensive%20Campaign%20Assessment%20NOV%205.pdf; https://www.understandingwar.org/backgrounder/russian-offensive-campaign-assessment-april-27; https://understandingwar.org/backgrounder/russian-offensive-campaign-assessment-december-16

[87] https://t.me/SALDO_VGA/502; https://t.me/va_konstantinov/1588

[88] https://rtvi dot com/news/novoe-vserossijskaya-detskaya-organizacziya-poluchila-nazvanie-dvizhenie-pervyh/; https://t.me/BalitskyEV/831

[89] https://www.facebook.com/GeneralStaff.ua/posts/pfbid0ZUf4B8YGjFgLAWudppgTvd2c7sQotDvV3WQQFANenRKvqifbHQ4g4Dg7aEHKpMUVl

[90] https://www.cnn.com/2023/03/02/europe/russia-kherson-torture-centers-intl/index.html

[91] https://t.me/Hajun_BY/6527

[92] https://t.me/Hajun_BY/6527

[93] https://t.me/Hajun_BY/6527

[94] https://t.me/modmilby/23912

[95] https://t.me/modmilby/23935; https://t.me/ATN_BTRC/91646; https://t.me/modmilby/23930; https://t.me/modmilby/23900; https://t.me/ATN_BTRC/91544; https://t.me/modmilby/23899

[96] https://twitter.com/COUPSURE/status/1631244699682975747; https://t.me/Novoeizdanie/43802; https://twitter.com/COUPSURE/status/1631244703298355202;

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How the quality of school lunch affects students ...
We find that in years when a school contracts with a healthy lunch company, students at the school score better on end-of-year academic tests. On average, student test scores are 0.03 to 0.04 ...
PDF Let Them Eat Lunch: The Impact of Universal Free Meals on Student
The National School Lunch Program (NSLP) is the second largest nutrition assistance program in the U.S., subsidizing over 30 million meals each school day at acost of $14 billion annually Federal (US Department of Agriculture Food and Nutrition Service, 2018)Traditionally, NSLP provides free. or reduced price meals for eligible low income ...
PDF School Meal Quality and Academic Performance Michael L. Anderson
breakfast or lunch under the National School Lunch Program (NSLP) on student test scores in the US. Many of these studies nd evidence that improved access to breakfast or lunch increased test scores (e.g.,Figlio and Winicki2005;Dotter2014;Imberman and Kugler2014; Frisvold2015), while others nd no e ect (e.g.,Leos-Urbel et al.2013;Schanzenbach and
PDF The Whats and Whys of School Lunches
small-scale school lunch programs. Purpose: To study the nutritional value of school lunches of elementary students, to explore their caregivers' attitudes and practices towards these lunches, and to relate these attitudes and practices with what children eat for lunch at school. Methods: This is a mixed-method research design study. It ...
The Politics Behind the National School Lunch Program
million children each year at a low rate or free of charge ("The National School Lunch. Program", n.d.). The National School Lunch Act (P.L. 113-79) explicitly declared this policy as. a form of national security and it must "safeguard the health and well-being of the Nation's. children" (P.L.113-79, p.1).
PDF Evaluating the Impact of School Nutrition Programs: Final Report
The subsidy depends on the income of the students served. For the 2003-2004 school year, the subsidies were $2.19 per free meal, $1.79 per reduced price meal, and $0.21 for a full price meal.6 Additionally, schools receive commodities for use in school lunches.
Let Them Eat Lunch: The Impact of Universal Free Meals on Student
This paper investigates the impact of extending free school lunch to all students, regardless of income, on academic performance in New York City middle schools. Using a difference-in-differences design and unique longitudinal, student-level data, we derive credibly causal estimates of the impacts of "Universal Free Meals" (UFM) on test ...
PDF Impact of The National School Lunch Program On
The National School Lunch Program (NSLP) is the second largest federally assisted food program and aims to provide nutritious, well-balanced lunches for school-age children. This thesis examined the association between NSLP participation and children's food security, using the third School Nutrition Dietary Assessment study (SNDA-III).
School Lunches: an Persuasive Essay on School Lunches
In this persuasive essay, we will explore the various arguments surrounding school lunches and the importance of providing nutritious and balanced meals to students. By examining the impact of healthy eating habits on academic performance and overall well-being, we will make a compelling case for the need to prioritize quality school lunch ...
School lunches in Japan: their contribution to healthier nutrient
School lunches in Japan have a history of more than 100 years, with the first provided in 1889 at a private elementary school in Yamagata Prefecture (5). This programme was recorded as relief work for children in poverty by Buddhists. The Ministry of Education began the financial subsidization of school lunches in 1932 and efforts to provide ...
Student Perception of Healthfulness, School Lunch Healthfulness, and
The US Department of Agriculture's National School Lunch Program has an important role in the diets of US children. In 2017, schools served lunches to about 30 million students each day. 1 In addition to a broad reach, school meal programs have the potential to improve the nutritional health of children, including those from low-income households. 2-4 A majority of school lunches are served ...
Student Perception of Healthfulness, School Lunch Healthfulness, and
Objective: To increase understanding about the healthfulness of school lunch and participation, this study measured 3 school lunch variables, students' perception of healthfulness, objective healthfulness, and participation, and examined associations between each pair of variables (3 associations). Methods: Multilevel models were used for a secondary analysis of data from the Healthy ...
School Lunch Argument: [Essay Example], 897 words GradesFixer
Conclusion. The School Lunch Argument is far from being a simple matter of taste versus nutrition. It is a multifaceted issue that requires us to consider the physical, emotional, and educational well-being of our nation's youth. By striking a balance between health and taste, we can provide students with meals that nourish their bodies, engage ...
PDF School Meals are Essential for Student Health and Learning
y compared to those who eat school lunch less frequently. As Frisvold and Price write, "exposure to healthier meals at school increases the healthful. oughout the day."25School Meals Improve Health OutcomesSchool meals support and improve student phys. cal and mental health, including weight-related outcomes. For.
How school lunch quality affects student achievement
How school lunch quality affects student achievement. The Healthy, Hunger-Free Kids Act of 2010 was intended to improve student health and reduce childhood obesity by increasing the minimum nutritional standards that schools must meet. Despite its good intentions, the changes mandated by this act were met with immediate backlash.
Importance Of School Lunches: [Essay Example], 568 words
School lunches are a critical part of a student's daily routine, providing essential nutrition to fuel their learning and development. While the importance of school lunches may seem obvious, the impact of these meals goes far beyond simply satisfying hunger. In this essay, we will explore the significance of school lunches in promoting student ...
The Impact of School Lunch on Student Performance
Currently, 130 percent of the poverty level is $31,005 for a family of four, and 185 percent is $44,123. This data points toward one of the major issues with school lunches in America. If 19.2 million students are receiving free lunches due to their socioeconomic status, school lunch could be their only opportunity for a nutritious meal each day.
Dissertations / Theses: 'National school lunch program'
Background: The school food environment is critical in demonstrating and encouraging a healthy dietary pattern among children. Incorporating vegetarian options into school lunch menus is an under-examined aspect of the school food environment, but has the potential to help achieve federal nutrition standards and introduce students to diverse foods.
'The Asian Kid With The Stinky Lunch' Narrative Is A Pop ...
Reflecting on the experience years later, stories about stinky lunches usually end with the writer reclaiming the narrative and saying that now they're proud of their cultural dishes: Sure, the smell was pungent, but their lunch tasted loads better than Kyle's turkey and cheese Lunchable.
Zelensky signs decree recognizing some Russian territories as
The decree listed the regions of Kuban, a historical region to the east of the Crimean Peninsula, Starodubshchyna, to the north of Chernihiv, and northern and eastern Slobozhanshchyna.. Also known ...
School Lunches Essay: [Essay Example], 552 words GradesFixer
For many children, school lunch may be their only opportunity to eat a balanced meal during the day. In this sense, school lunches serve as a vital source of nutrition for students, ensuring they have the energy and focus they need to succeed academically. Without access to school lunches, many students would go without a nutritious meal during ...
History and Destruction of the
By the end of 1941 most of the Jews were arrested and put in the local prison. A Christian woman, Lubov Prokhorenko, who lives now in the village of Velika Dubrova in the Bryansk district, describes conditions in the jail this way: "In 1942, I was 19 years old and became a member of the local Resistance group.
2023 Bryansk Oblast military aircraft crashes
On the morning of 13 May 2023, an air group of four aircraft of the Russian Air Force crashed almost simultaneously in the Bryansk Oblast of Russia: two Mi-8 helicopters, a Su-34 fighter-bomber and a Su-35 fighter. [1] [2] According to Baza, nine people were killed: three crew members each in two Mi-8s, two Su-34 pilots and a Su-35 pilot.[1]The incident occurred on the backdrop of the Russian ...
Russian Offensive Campaign Assessment, March 2, 2023
Download the PDF. Russian Offensive Campaign Assessment, March 2, 2023. Kateryna Stepanenko, Riley Bailey, Grace Mappes, Angela Howard, George Barros, and Frederick W. Kagan. March 2, 8pm ET. Click here to see ISW's interactive map of the Russian invasion of Ukraine. This map is updated daily alongside the static maps present in this report.

How the quality of school lunch affects students’ academic performance

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