deforestation in manipur essay

Environmental problems of Manipur

• January 2020
• The holistic approach to environment 10(4):124-140
• 10(4):124-140

• Manipur University

• Kakching Khunou College, Manipur

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Forest and Its People in Manipur

The huge deforestation for poppy plantation in many parts of hills in Manipur has threatened our rich biodiversity and disturbs ecological balance.

By Sanjenbam Jugeshwor Singh

Updated 2 Jul 2022, 4:49 pm

The hilly state of Manipur is situated in the north-eastern part of the country on an area of 22,327 sq km. It shares international border with Myanmar and lies between latitude 23 degree 50 minute and 25 degree 42 minute North and longitude 92 degree 50 minute and 94 degree 46 minute East. Geographically the state comprises the flat plateau of alluvial valley and hill territory. The state is drained by Imphal in the central, Barak in the west, Chindwin/Yu in the east and Liyai rivers systems in the north. The annual temperature in the state ranges 14.5 degree Celsius to 38 degree Celsius and the average rainfall ranges from 1,250 mm to 2,700 mm. November to February remains dry and remaining eight months are more or less rainy. About three-fourth of the state's geographical area is under recorded forest. The state has eight different forest type as per Champion and Seth's classification system (1968) belonging to 5 types of groups viz Tropical semi evergreen, Tropical moist deciduous, sub-tropical Broadleaved Hill, sub-tropical pine and Montana wet Temperate Forests.

Forests are among the most important repositories of terrestrial biological diversity. Together, tropical, temperate and boreal forests offer very diverse habitats for plants, animals and micro-organisms. Blessed with an amazing variety of flora and fauna, 67 per cent of the geographical area of Manipur is hill tract covered forests. Depending on the altitude of hill ranges, the climatic condition varies from tropical to sub-alpine. The wet forests and the pine forests occur between 900-2700 m above MSL and they together sustain a host of rare and endemic plant and animal life.

Coveted the world over as some of the most beautiful and precious blooms, orchids have an aura of exotic, mysteries about them.In Manipur, they are abound in their natural habitat growing in soil or on trees and shrubs speaking their beauty and colour, stunning the eye that is not used to seeing them in such profusion. There are 500 varieties of orchids which grow in Manipur of which 472 have been identified.

Biological diversity is the basis for a wide array of goods and services provided by forests. The variety of forest trees and shrubs play a vital role in the daily life of rural communities in many areas, as sources of wood and non-wood products, as contributors to soil and water conservation, and as repositories of aesthetic, ethical, cultural and religious values.

Forest animals are a vital source of nutrition and income to many people, and have vital roles in forest ecology, such as pollination, seed predation, dispersal and germination, and predation on potential pest species. Forest biological diversity is one of the seven thematic elements of the concept of Sustainable Forest Management approved by the General Assembly of the UN in 2007, together with the Non-Legally Binding Instrument on all types of forests. Losing forest diversity means missing opportunities for medicines, food, raw materials and employment opportunities, in one word: welfare.

In exercise of the powers conferred by Section 26, 32, 51 and 76 of the Indian Forest Act, 1927 (XVI of 1972) the Lt. Governor (Administration), Manipur made Rules and issued Notification No. 56/27/70-For Secretariat: Forest Department on the 10th day of September, 1971 for the management and administration of Forests in Manipur namely, “The Manipur Forest Rules, 1971.”There was no policy on forests prior to it. The commercial extraction of forest produce started only after 1889 through the DFO Cachar on 75:25 revenue sharing bases between the State of Manipur and the Cachar Forest Division, under the agreement with the Assam Government.

However, prior to British rule in India (1891) there was no system of forest management in the State. The population of the State was very low and hence whatever extraction had taken place was below the annual increment in the forest produce. The value of the produce could not be appreciated for lack of market and communication. During the early period of British rule, no separate forest officer was appointed. In the year 1931, the Forest Department was set up with a separate forest member in the erstwhile Manipur State Darbar. There was considerable improvement in the management of forests with a brief forest policy highlighted under the Darbar Resolution No. 10-A (1932).

The hill areas of Manipur surrounding the valley are the home of different ethnic groups, viz., Nagas and the Kuki-Chin group or the Zo People, categorized as Schedule Tribes in the constitution of India and the indigenous people as per the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples. Ethnographers and anthropologists have attempted to differentiate the Nagas and the Zo people by the land holding system they practiced. Though the Nagas in Manipur are somehow similar to one another, when it comes to the whole of Nagas there are variants of land holding systems among them.

Unlike the Nagas, the Zo peoples are rather homogeneous in terms of their land holding system,  Which is in a way intertwine with the hereditary chieftainship and sole ownership of land is with the chief of the village and village authority. The tribal people of Manipur, from time immemorial, have been under the leadership of their Chiefs and his council. They are the custodians of tribal culture, customs and traditions. In Manipur State the tribal people are protected through the Chiefs against total and absolute exploitation and suppression from external aggression and domination especially in the matter of land holding system.

The tribal chiefs of Manipur hold title and ownership over the village land under their jurisdiction, and share it with the villagers. Thus sustainable tribal economy evolves out of this practice.

Manipur was a princely state that merged with the Indian Union in 1949 after some initial reluctance on the part of the then Maharaja. A peculiar feature of the state is that out of its total geographical area, only 10 per cent is in the valleys, which is home to around 65 per cent of the total populations (overwhelmingly non-tribal) while the hill areas are inhabited by various tribal communities belonging to Naga, and Zo Indigenous Peoples (Chin-Kuki-Mizo). The outbreak of insurgency in the Naga Hills in the 1950s affected Naga-inhabited Northern, Eastern and Western Hills of the state too. Similarly, eruption of violence in Mizo Hills in the 1960s caused disturbances in the Southern hills dominated by kindred tribes.

The Valley inhabited largely by the Meitei community, too, has been the scene of insurgency caused by local armed groups from the 1970s.“Integrity” of the State has been a major issue as there is a demand from certain Naga groups for merger of areas dominated by them in the Greater Nagaland. The Kuki underground group (KNO) demanded a full-fledged State and at the same time, the Zomi, Hmar and Kuki group under the umbrella of United People’s Front (UPF) has demanded Autonomous Hill State within the State of Manipur under Art. 244A of the Constitution of India while maintaining territorial integrity of Manipur. In short the state has remained in the midst of conflict and violence for long.

There is only one land holding system in the entire State of Manipur so far whereas in Assam there are about three land holding systems. The Hill Areas Committee (HAC) is responsible for initiating to framing of Rules and Regulations for land holding system to be implemented in the hill areas of Manipur in the interests of indigenous tribal peoples in accordance with the provisions given under the Second Schedule of the Hill Areas Committee Order, 1972 since the MLR & LR Act, 1960 is purely meant for the valley people. After lapses of even more than 44 years the HAC is not properly or fully functional till date.

Across India’s forest areas, people are fighting for democracy, livelihood and dignity. The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006, is one instrument in that struggle. The Manipur Forest Rules, 1971 may sincerely be checked by the tribal people’s representative and these rules should not be contradicted to the customary laws and traditional practices of indigenous tribal ancestral land holding system under the chieftainship institution in the State of Manipur.

The huge deforestation for poppy plantation in many parts of hills in Manipur has threatened our rich biodiversity and disturbs ecological balance which could be the beginning of the end of our lives if not stopped right now. To avoid this the long cherish political aspirations of the indigenous tribal peoples of Manipur may be addressed within the frame-work of the Constitution of India by both the Central and State Governments in order to protect the territorial integrity and ecological balance of the State of Manipur.

( The views expressed are personal. The writer can be reached at [email protected] )

First published: 2 Jul 2022, 4:49 pm

Tags: environment deforestation forest people in manipur

Sanjenbam Jugeshwor Singh

Assistant Professor, JCRE Global College, Babupara, Imphal. The writer can be reached at [email protected]

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Ifp exclusive.

• DOI: 10.33765/THATE.10.4.4
• Corpus ID: 224939371

Environmental problems of Manipur

• Arambam Sophia , M. Devi
• Published 14 September 2020
• Environmental Science, Geography

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38 References

Shifting cultivation in manipur:land, labour and environment, swidden change in southeast asia: understanding causes and consequences, shifting cultivation in north east india: social dimension, cross cultural reflection and strategies for improvement, study of some important medicinal plants found in imphal-east district, manipur, india, survey of medicinal plants in bishnupur district, manipur, north eastern india, ethnobotany of medicinal plants used by the zeliangrong ethnic group of manipur, northeast india., the loktak: the mirror of manipur, a review on medicinal plants of manipur with special reference to hepatoprotection, plants used by meitei community of manipur for the treatment of diabetes, related papers.

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The Holistic Approach to Environment (Sep 2020)

Environmental problems of Manipur

• Arambam Sophia,
• Mayanglambam Sarda Devi

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The issue of environment versus human activity has become one of the most common global topics. Global warming, greenhouse effect, air pollution, land and water pollution are all results of human activity. Human behaviour lies at the root of both conservation and environmental damage. The rapid growth of population and economic development are some of the greatest threats to the environment through the expansion and intensification of agriculture, uncontrolled growth of urbanization and industrialization, and the destruction of natural habitats. The paper seeks to study the unique features of Manipur, a pristine land situated in the North-East corner of India which is noted for its rich biodiversity, abundance of medicinal plants with various healing properties and yet it is facing the threat of environmental degradation and pollution. It is mainly rapid population growth, unplanned urbanization in urban areas, lack of awareness about environmental issues, poverty and Jhuming cultivation practices in the hills that have led to environmental damage, with its concomitant effects on human development, for it is ultimately the people of the state who have to suffer the effects of environmental damage. The paper gives a broad picture of the abundant green resources and unique fauna of Manipur and the environmental problems that threaten its biodiversity.

• environment
• urbanization
• medicinal plants

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"Substantial Issue": National Green Tribunal Takes Up Manipur "Forest Cover Loss"

Manipur forest cover loss: the bench of ngt chairperson justice prakash shrivastava, and expert member dr a senthil vel impleaded themselves as respondents in the matter, after which the ngt sent notices to the moef and the fsi.

The National Green Tribunal (NGT) has taken note of forest cover loss in Manipur

The National Green Tribunal (NGT) has taken note of a social media post by Manipur Chief Minister N Biren Singh on forest cover loss in the state due to deforestation and illegal opium poppy cultivation.

In a post on X, Mr Singh had said Manipur had a forest cover of 17,475 sqkm in 1987, which decreased to 16,598 sqkm in 2021. He had said 877 sqkm of forest cover was destroyed, primarily to grow illegal opium poppy.

"Some mind-boggling data...evictions from the reserved and protected forests were carried out throughout the state. It was never targeted towards any particular community," the Chief Minister from the BJP, whose policies the Kuki-Zo tribes hold responsible for the outbreak of the ethnic crisis in the state, had said in the post which included an explainer video.

On Thursday, the NGT's Principal Bench in Delhi taking note of the data released by the Chief Minister said they raised "substantial issue relating to compliance of environmental norms."

"The news item relates to the substantial decrease in the area of forest in the state of Manipur. As per the article, the forest cover in the state has been reduced from 17,475 sqkm in 1987 to 16,598 sqkm in 2021, which shows a decrease of 877 sqkm of forest cover," the NGT said.

"It further states that this has happened mainly due to deforestation and opium poppy cultivation. The news item further refers to data from the Manipur Remote Sensing Applications Centre, which says that the area of opium poppy cultivation in Manipur has declined by 60 per cent since 2021," it said.

The Bench of NGT Chairperson Justice Prakash Shrivastava, and expert member Dr A Senthil Vel then impleaded themselves as respondents in the matter, after which the NGT sent notices to the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF), and the Forest Survey of India (FSI).

The NGT in the notices said the MoEF and the FSI should reply within a week, and listed the matter for hearing on July 31.

The NGT said its Principal Bench is already considering the issue of loss of forest land across the country.

Manipur government sources told NDTV on Friday there had been strong pushback from the Kuki-Zo tribes when forest officials went to clear alleged encroachments months before violence began in May 2023. "Those who have encroached upon forest lands would approach the National Commission for Scheduled Tribes every time enforcement action began. We are exploring legal options to check misrepresentation to the Commission by the encroachers," said a senior official, requesting anonymity.

Want To Take Our Lands: Kuki-Zo Tribes

The Kuki-Zo tribes have been for long alleging the Biren Singh government manufactured the forest encroachment angle to allow the valley-majority Meiteis to expand out in the hill areas. The Meiteis' demand for inclusion under the Scheduled Tribes (ST) category aggravated the tensions in a state where resources were already limited.

Kuki-Zo political leaders and civil society groups have frequently said a narrative is being formed to carry out "ethnic cleansing".

A report by the Editors' Guild of India (EGI) on the media's coverage of the violence had also alleged the Biren Singh government did not follow due procedure in declaring parts of hills as "reserved" and "protected" forests.

The crowdfunded EGI report - made on the invitation of the Assam Rifles, according to the EGI - released in September 2023 had alleged the BJP government in Manipur branded all Kuki tribes as "illegal immigrants" after some 4,000 refugees fleeing the military coup in neighbouring Myanmar crossed into Manipur.

The evictions from and demolitions in "forest areas were carried out only in non-Naga inhabited areas," which led the Kukis to suspect they were being "singled out", the report prepared by the EGI's three-member team had alleged.

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Principal Chief Conservator of Forests SS Chhabra in a seven-page letter to the Manipur government had denied all the allegations.

The ethnic violence in Manipur has claimed over 220 lives and displaced over 50,000 people. They have been relief camps for a year now.

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Preliminary account on the 30th June 2022 Tupul, Manipur landslide of Northeast India

• Landslide News
• Published: 04 May 2023
• Volume 20 , pages 1547–1552, ( 2023 )

Cite this article

• Santanu Baruah   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-6643-1909 1 , 2 ,
• Chandan Dey 1 , 2 &
• Manichandra Sanoujam 3  

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Data availability

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Acknowledgements

We sincerely thank Dr. G. Narahari Sastry, Director, CSIR-NEIST-Jorhat, for his kind encouragement in carrying out this work. The rainfall data can be accessed by requesting [email protected] . We thank the anonymous reviewers and the Editor for their constructive reviews and suggestions.

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Santanu Baruah & Chandan Dey

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Earth Science Department, Manipur University, Imphal, Manipur, India

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All authors contributed to the study conception and design. Material preparation, data collection, etc. were performed by Santanu Baruah and Manichandra Sanoujam, while Chandan Dey performed the GIS work and figure preparation. Santanu Baruah and Chandan Dey wrote the manuscript and all authors commented and checked the manuscript for any mistakes. All authors read and approved the final manuscript before submission.

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Baruah, S., Dey, C. & Sanoujam, M. Preliminary account on the 30th June 2022 Tupul, Manipur landslide of Northeast India. Landslides 20 , 1547–1552 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-023-02074-y

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-023-02074-y

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Environmental problems of Manipur

2020, The holistic approach to environment

The issue of environment versus human activity has become one of the most common global topics. Global warming, greenhouse effect, air pollution, land and water pollution are all results of human activity. Human behaviour lies at the root of both conservation and environmental damage. The rapid growth of population and economic development are some of the greatest threats to the environment through the expansion and intensification of agriculture, uncontrolled growth of urbanization and industrialization, and the destruction of natural habitats. The paper seeks to study the unique features of Manipur, a pristine land situated in the North-East corner of India which is noted for its rich biodiversity, abundance of medicinal plants with various healing properties and yet it is facing the threat of environmental degradation and pollution. It is mainly rapid population growth, unplanned urbanization in urban areas, lack of awareness about environmental issues, poverty and Jhuming cultiv...

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In Book: Dimensions of Environmental Threats (Ed. Arvind Kumar), Chapter-49, pp 376-382

Y.C. Tripathi

Indian environment has been deteriorated remarkably in the past 50 years due to rapid decline in natural resources and severe increase in pollution level. Depletion of forests, population growth, vehicular emissions, use of hazardous chemicals and various other undesirable human activities are mainly responsible for this degraded scenario of environmental health in India. It is, in fact, rendering considerable economic loss to the country and warrants serious attention of policymakers, administrators, scientists and people altogether to save the environment and humanity and to provide generational equity. The present paper deals with the threat of environmental degradation and suggests some possible remedial measures for eco-conservation in India.

Kharibam Hitler Singh

Definition of Biodiversity: As per the Convention of Biological Diversity 1992 'Biological diversity' means the variability among living organisms from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are a part; this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems. Biodiversity is a compound word derived from 'Biological diversity' and therefore considered to have the same meaning. Manipur is blessed with diverse biological species both plants and animals (domesticated and wild) which is in short termed as Biodiversity and different type of habitats due to several land forms and altitude; as it is situated in the Indo Malayan Biological Hot Spot. A region is said to be a Biological hotspot if the region contain at least 1500 species of vascular plants(> 0.5% of the world's total and the region have lost more or equal to 70% of its original native habitat. In the world there are thirty four Biological Hot Spots, and India is having three Biological Hot Spots viz; Indo Malayan, Himalayas and Western Ghat. Further Manipur is situated in the Bio geographical region of 8 (North East Zone) and North East Zone is the most bio diverse region in India and also its flora and fauna is depleted at the higher rate than the other region of India. Manipur is home to many rare and endemic flora and fauna. For this article I would like to restrict to the wild or non-domesticated Biodiversity of Manipur. Male Nongin (Syrmaticus humiae humiae)

International Journal For Multidisciplinary Research

Mulehu Khesoh

Rice is a major consumptions of the people in Manipur and the whole North-East India. However, the production of rice was and is never enough for the people of this region, which requires the hill people to cultivate for their own livelihood. The jhum or the shifting cultivation is an ancestral method, which requires the clearing of dense forest for showing the crops. In the olden days with minimal populations and minimal clearance of the forest, the affects were visible minimal. However, after the century and with the coming of the modern scientific era, the negative aspect of jhum is visible seriously affecting the socio-ecology of the humanity in the greater ways, leading to several natural disasters at present. This is mainly due to the plantation of the unwanted seeds and plants, which directly affects the eco-system and the environment, turning the forest into grassland, soil degradation, carbon erosion, soil erosion, landslide, flood etc. Thus, the modern socio-ecologist soug...

SAYAN BHATTACHARYA

isara solutions

International Research Journal Commerce arts science

Environmental degradation is the main problem the world is facing today. Every part of life whether social, economic or human-health is affected adversely by this. Forests are being destroyed to satisfy human needs. Man is degrading the soil continuously to satisfy his greed and not thinking about the new generation’s needs. The biodiversity in forests, non-irrigated and irrigated lands, hill areas, deserts and marines ecosystems is subject to several pressures. The over utilization of vehicles, waste-burnt, factories etc. are increasing the level of CO2, Carbon mono-oxide, etc. which results in global warming. This is an alarm for the survival of human being as well as other species on the earth. In the present paper an attempt has been made to highlight the major environmental concerns and their consequences in India.

IOSR Journals

Sayan Bhattacharya

Forest cover in hills is essential to maintain environmental, economic and ecological balances. North Bengal accounts for 3,086 sq km (26 %) of the 11,876 sq km area of classified forests in the state, and for nearly 5,000 sq km (40 %) of all land under tree cover. Upper Chatakpur is one of the emerging ecotourism spots of north Bengal, located at an altitude of 7887 feet in Darjeeling district. It is a 180 years old ethnic village with 19 houses and a population of about 89, and at an altitude of 7887 ft. It is about 8 km. from Sonada (26° 57' N, 88° 16' E), 22 km. from Darjeeling (26° 2' N, 88° 15' E) and 72 km. from Siliguri (26° 42' N, 88° 25' E). Upper Chatakpur Village situated within Senchal Wildlife Sanctuary, Darjeeling. The sanctuary with an area of 38.88 sq. km has an elevation of 1500-2600 m. The survey work was done in December, 2014 by visiting upper Chatakpur village and the primary data were gathered through field survey and direct contact with common people and authorized centers of the region. Surveys on the topography, demography, agriculture, livestock, water management, education, culture, health, waste management, transport, biodiversity, human animal conflict were done in this area. Medicinal plant diversity was studied in the village area and information was gathered from the local forest department centre. Information regarding the transport system was collected from the local transport office and syndicate. Census report was collected from the Sonada Panchayat Office. Health and education information was collected from the local primary school and the local sub health centre. Information on sustainable agricultural practices and waste management policies is collected through surveys in the village houses and agricultural fields. Biodiversity of Senchal Wildlife Sanctuary was documented by visiting the forest areas. Pictorial documentation was done in every phase of study. In spite of getting so much attention in the recent time, the village is not adequately developed. There is an urgent need for implementing sustainable management systems in the areas for the betterment of the socio-environmental structures. Some of the possible management strategies have been suggested for maintaining the social, environmental, economic and ecological balance of the region.

Charles C yuhlung

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Manipur’s push for dams threatens local ecology and communities

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• Dams to generate hydropower, considered a clean energy source by many, were expected to usher development in Manipur but they have caused more damage than gains, alleges the residents of villages around operational, incomplete, and failed dams.
• Due to such projects, villages upstream of barrages have lost farmlands and forest resources, while those downstream have faced water crisis, economic stress and increased hardships.
• The state’s ecologically significant Loktak lake and the people living around it for centuries have undergone significant changes impacting local ecology and livelihood.

“Ngamu, pengba, ngaton or khabak, ngakra …” Tongbram Ahongjao names fish varieties that have gone missing from his environment over the past 40 years. A sexagenarian resident of Thanga, an island village inside Loktak, the largest freshwater lake of northeastern India located in Manipur state, he has seen the lake area change. “Moirang phou, kakching phou, chimlei, tao thabi…,” he continues, speaking of rice varieties that disappeared from the lowlands around the lake. To be fair, the lowlands disappeared in the first place.

At some mythological time, Poubi Lai, the giant, dragon-headed python, which lived under the waters of the Loktak lake, ate one man every night, until King Kabui Salang Maiba killed it with a trick, goes the legend. For centuries, Poubi Lai symbolised disaster at the community level for the Loktak people.

Then, four decades ago, in 1983, disaster came in the shape of a hydropower project, say the local people – the Ithai barrage on Manipur (or Imphal) river that uses Loktak as the reservoir. As of March 2022, the Loktak multipurpose project is Manipur’s only functional hydropower project, with an installed capacity of 105 megawatts (MW) of electricity, and is Manipur’s main source of power.

Declared a Ramsar site , or wetland of global importance in 1990, it was listed in the Montreux Record as early as 1993, signifying “Ramsar sites where changes in ecological character have occurred, are occurring or are likely to occur.”

Three decades since then, there is no dearth of stories that reflect the dirty side of clean energy.

“Tao thabi (a rice variety), in particular, was a great source of energy… it’d been a favourite with local sportspersons … And don’t forget the heikak (water chestnut), a cheap source of nutrition and also income, once found in abundance, growing increasingly rarer,” Ahongjao told Mongabay-India.

Among the fishes he named, ngamu is channa/snakehead, pengba is Osteobrama belangeri , ngaton or khabak is Labeo bata and ngakra is catfish, going by their other names.

At a young age, Ahongjao fished in the lake during monsoon and farmed on the lowlands during winter, just like most other people living in and around the Loktak wetlands. But the dam has impacted all local sources of nutrition and income – fish, rice and edible plants.

“Fish varieties dwindled because the Ithai barrage blocked the path of the migratory fishes that used to swim upstream from Bay of Bay Bengal through Chindwin river (in Myanmar) to spawn in Manipur river and Loktak lake,” environmentalist Salam Rajesh, a member of the technical committee of Manipur State Wetlands Authority, told Mongabay-India. “It took a big economic toll on the fishing community of the Loktak wetlands.”

Sprawling over 230 square kilometres, Loktak is large; it has a direct catchment area of 1,064 sq. km. and serves as a source of livelihood for about 100,00 people living in and around the wetlands.

But size is not its claim to fame: it’s the phumdis, the floating islands of biomass that make Loktak a unique landscape. Described as ‘thick, floating mats of weeds covered with soil’ in the Ramsar listing, the phumdis usually have about 2 metres floating above water level and 3 metres below. They used to sink during winter to extract nutrients from the base of the lake. But that cycle has stopped. The water level never goes down.

The phumdis are also the only natural habitat of the endangered Sangai , the brow-antlered or dancing deer which dwell on a 22 sq. km. stretch of phumdis inside the 40 sq. km. Keibul Lamjao National Park, the world’s only floating protected area, is part of the Loktak landscape.

Before the barrage came up, the water level at the lake used to go down in winter, receding from hectares of lowlands, making them available for growing rice. But the barrage requires maintenance of a particular water level throughout the year. The lowlands never come out of water.

“Heikaks (water chestnuts) used to grow mostly in winter when the lake was less deep. Sunlight reached the bottom of the lake and helped the heikak germinate. Now, as the water level is always high, heikaks do not grow that much,” Budha Khwairakpam, a resident of Ithing village on the edge of the lake, explained to Mongabay-India.

Read more: Manipur’s native fishes in troubled waters

The National Hydroelectric Power Corporation (NHPC), which built and operates the project, claimed that apart from generating 105 MW of hydropower, the surrounding area “has also been benefited by development of infrastructure, education, medical facilities and employment avenues” and that the power station also provides lift irrigation for over 23,000 hectares of land in the valley.

Notwithstanding their claims, the demand for decommissioning the Ithai barrage has continued to grow. In 2017, the then Manipur governor Najma Heptullah had said at a programme that she was “working very hard for the removal of Ithai barrage” due to its adverse economic and ecological impact.

In fact, flood has become a regular phenomenon both in the villages upstream and downstream of the Ithai barrage.

Chairen, a village about 11 km downstream of the barrage, bore the burnt. “Chairen has been famous for its pottery. But sediments deposited by successive floods due to the barrage have covered the village’s original soil under layers. The new soil is unfit for their craft,” Jiten Yumnum, secretary of the Imphal-based non-profit Center for Research and Advocacy, Manipur (CRAM), told Mongabay-India.

A renewed thrust on hydropower projects

In March 2019, the government of India decided to declare large hydropower projects as renewable energy sources. Until then, only hydropower projects of lower than 25 MW of installed capacity were categorised as renewable energy, apart from solar, wind and biomass projects. The decision opened the door for a prospective boom in building large dams across the country – with the Himalayan region in northern India and the hilly terrain of the northeast being the prime target zones.

According to a Central Electricity Authority report , a total hydropower capacity of 148,701 MW has been identified across the country, of which 58,971 MW (39.65 percent) were in northeastern India. This excluded Sikkim (4,286 MW), which was clubbed under the eastern region. The report said, of the total identified capacity in the northeast, only 1,427 MW of installed capacity had been developed, leaving 93 percent yet to be exploited.

The lion’s share of identified capacity in the northeast goes to Arunachal Pradesh, 50,328mw or 85 percent of the northeast’s total potential, followed by Meghalaya (2,394 MW), Mizoram (2,196 MW) and Manipur (1,784 MW). Manipur had 94.04 percent of its identified capacity yet to be tapped, the report says.

In 2020, following the union government’s drive, and perhaps backed by the confidence of five years of relative peace in this insurgency-affected state, the Manipur state government decided to push for hydropower projects. It said it estimated the state’s hydropower potential at more than 2,000 MW and identified 29 new projects with a total proposed installed capacity of 300 MW.

These include projects with a capacity as low as 0.44 MW and 0.78 MW to 49.5 MW. Five of them are above 25 MW of proposed/tentative installed capacity, meaning large dams – Barak 4 HE Project (49.5 MW), Irang 3 HE Project (46.50 MW), Ijai HE Project (28.70 MW), Imphal HE Project (28.3 MW) and Barak 3 HE Project (26 MW). The state planned to get the detailed project reports for these 29 projects to be formulated by 2022.

Work on another big-ticket project, the Loktak Downstream Hydroelectric Project (66 MW) on 211.5 acres of land on Leimatak river in Tamenglong district, is also finally set to start after a long delay of over two decades. In 2020, when the Manipur government signed the power purchase agreement, its project cost was pegged at Rs. 1,311.05 crores (Rs. 13.11 billion). Land acquisition is expected to start anytime soon.

“Ithai barrage, instead of irrigating 50,000 hectares as promised, actually flooded a similar size of land. The Loktak downstream project is going to see a similar outcome,” said Yumnam of CRAM.

But for environmentalists in Manipur, the state’s experience with Loktak is not the only reason to trigger anxiety when they hear of more dams, especially large dams. There are other dams, failed or incomplete dams, which never took off but added huge costs to the state exchequer and misery to the people living around the project area.

Manipur’s power minister Thongam Biswajit Singh, who also holds the portfolio for environment, forest and climate change, did not respond to Mongabay-India’s queries.

Read more: Hydropower project nudges a tribal community out of their land in Himachal Pradesh

Old wounds spark fear

Khuopam dam was constructed in 1978 as the first dam in northeast India, on Machengdui river in Tamenglong district. Its irrigation canals collapsed over a decade ago, causing loss of farmland and income from fishing. Another dam, the Khuga dam in Churachandpur district took decades to complete and has been defunct since its inauguration in 2010, though it impacted fishing, farming and keeps flooding downstream villages regularly. It has neither produced any electricity nor generated revenue. The more recent Dolaithabi dam has also run into rough weather soon after its hurried inauguration.

Ram Wangkheirakpam, convenor of the Imphal-based non-profit, Indigenous Perspectives , said that whether big dams can be called sources of clean energy has been questioned worldwide because of their wide-ranging adverse impacts and Manipur stands as an example.

“Take the case of the Mapithel dam on Thoubal river. It took the state government decades but they have not completed it yet. This supposedly multipurpose dam has not supplied water for drinking and irrigation and has not generated any electricity,” he told Mongabay-India.

Alleging that the government had not properly rehabilitated any village, he said, “Affected people have been left high and dry by just giving them some cash compensation.”

The multipurpose project on river Thoubul was sanctioned in 1980 for an estimated cost of Rs 47.25 crore (Rs. 472.5 million). People in some of the villages were displaced in the 1990s, while some others had to leave in 2015 after the villages submerged following the shutting down of the watergates. In 2012, the project cost of this centre-state joint venture was re-estimated at Rs. 1,387 crore (Rs. 13.87 billion) at the price of 2011 and in 2016 re-estimated as Rs. 1,694 crore (Rs. 16.94 billion). The state authorities had informed the National Green Tribunal (NGT) in February 2016 that “Rs. 1,202.391 (Rs. 12.02 billion) crores approximately has already been spent till February 2014.” It was formally inaugurated in 2020.

This inordinate delay, to some extent, has been due to protests.

Among the upstream villages, Loupong, Maphou Kuki and Chadong are totally submerged, while Lamlai Khunou, Ramrei, Riha, Thoyee and Sarkarphung have been badly affected. Tumukhong, Moirangpurel, Laikhong and Nungbrang are among the downstream villages affected by the Mapithel dam.

“We have got only 60 percent of the promised compensation. They haven’t given us the church, land and other livelihood options they promised,” said P. Mahangmi, headman of Lamlai Khunou, dominated by the Tangkhul Naga, a Scheduled Tribe.

At the neighbouring Ramrei village, Themson Jajo produced a February 2022 reply from the Manipur water resources department to questions filed under the Right to Information (RT) Act, 2005. The total fund utilised stood at Rs 997.77 crore (Rs. 9.97 billion), of which Rs. 550 crore (Rs. 5.5 billion) was paid to two construction companies. Rs. 22.71 crore (Rs. 227.1 million) was paid as compensation for land and Rs. 39.54 crore (Rs. 395.4 million) was deposited to district authorities for disbursements as an economic package.

“Farmlands on the upstream are submerged and downstream they are dry, running short of water for farming, fishing and animals. Then, there are floods,” Chadong resident Dominic Kashung told Mongabay-India.

Chadong disintegrated into four separate habitations – Chadong Maphou, Chadong Original, Chadong West and Chadong New Site – separated either by the lake or the hills. At Ramrei, which originally stood on the bank of the Thoubul river, four-fifths of land and forest resources are now on the other side of the river.

“Getting access to resources means taking the boat, crossing the river…,” Jajo said, as weary creases formed on his forehead.

Read more: Purulia pumped storage project shows why pumped hydropower may not be clean

Banner image: A fisherman rows his boat in the lake through phumdis . Photo by Snigdhendu Bhattacharya/Mongabay.

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Cocoa Driven Deforestation in Cameroon: Practices and Policy

31 Pages Posted: 16 Sep 2024

Verina Ingram

Wageningen University and Research (WUR)

Valerie Janssen

Affiliation not provided to ssrn, victorine akenji neh.

University of Buea

Arun Kumar Pratihast

Cocoa production has increased in Cameroon since the 2000s, supported by policies to enhance productivity, yields, farmer incomes and state revenues. However farming practices cause deforestation and degradation, resulting in policies incentivising zero-deforestation production and forest protection. Given this context we identified perceptions, drivers of farming practices and their on-ground impacts, the policies and initiatives addressing deforestation and cocoa. We operationalised a practice-based conceptual approach, based on 67 key informant interviews, 8 focus group discussions, remote sensing analysis of land cover and ground validation in 557 locations around Ntui. Increasing, small-scale cocoa-driven deforestation, totalling 4599 ha over the past decade was found. 64% of observed cocoa farms were shown on maps as forest. Cocoa farmers do not perceive themselves as responsible, attributing deforestation to poverty, low yields and land availability, migration, population growth, high land and labour prices. Apart from sustainability certification, farmers were unaware of zero-deforestation initiatives and policies. Policies appear ineffective in halting cocoa-related deforestation, modestly effective in expanding cocoa production, and ineffective in increasing yields. Opportunities to reduce deforestation include yield improvement, information, law enforcement, and land planning. Productivity increases were perceived to drive further deforestation. Farmers perceive no trade-offs between livelihoods and forest use, contrary to other value-chain stakeholders, with paradoxes apparent. These results lead to recommendations for coherent forest and agricultural policies, pragmatic forest and agroforestry definitions, accurate (agro)forest mapping, and evidence-based reframing of discourses on cocoa, agriculture and forests. The incongruences between perceptions, practices and policies present challenges for implementing the EU Deforestation Regulation.

Keywords: Deforestation-free cocoa, forest policy, agricultural commodities, value chain governance

Suggested Citation: Suggested Citation

Verina Ingram (Contact Author)

Wageningen university and research (wur) ( email ).

Netherlands

University of Buea ( email )

Molyko to Buea town Rd P.O. Box 63 Buea Cameroon

affiliation not provided to SSRN ( email )

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