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In This Article Expand or collapse the "in this article" section Sociology of Education

Introduction, general overviews.

• US Supreme Court Cases
• Cultural Capital and Schooling
• Race and Ethnicity in Schools
• Social Class, Status Attainment, and Schooling
• Gender and Schooling
• Social Organization of Schools
• Explanations of the Black-White Test Score Gap
• Assessments, Accountability, and Standards
• School Choice

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• African American Racial Identity and Learning
• Alternative Schools
• Desegregation and Integration
• Ethnic Studies in the United States
• Gifted Education
• Inclusive Education
• Religion in Elementary and Secondary Education in the United States
• Social Justice

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• Cyber Safety in Schools
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• History of Education in Europe
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Sociology of Education by Sheneka M. Williams LAST REVIEWED: 15 December 2011 LAST MODIFIED: 15 December 2011 DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199756810-0065

The sociology of education refers to how individuals’ experiences shape the way they interact with schooling. More specifically, the sociology of education examines the ways in which individuals’ experiences affect their educational achievement and outcomes. Scholars and professionals who are interested in the interaction of education and society typically participate in this field. This field also includes education policy issues that arise from the social context of schools. The citations included in this bibliography guide users to works that primarily pertain to the structure of schooling. Certain citations have been included because of their significance to the discipline, in particular, and their influence on the overall field of education, in general.

The general works provided in this bibliography cover a range of topics in the sociology of education field. Arum, et al. 2011 , a composite of articles relating to the contemporary study of the sociology of education, provides a foundational basis for many articles contained in this work. These readings extend from theoretical viewpoints, such as status attainment and social mobility, to more racialized analyses that relate to the achievement gap and desegregation. To further gain insights on the theoretical underpinnings and beginnings of the sociology of education, readers should consult Becker 1975 , Bourdieu and Passeron 1974 , Coleman 1966 , and Schultz 1961 . More contemporary works, such as Coleman 1988 and Putnam 1995 , are included below. Alternative frameworks such as Durkheim 1956 and Bowles and Gintis 1976 also provide a basis for understanding the sociology of education. These works, published by economists as well as sociologists, provide a foundational basis for understanding the evolution of the sociology of education. Even today, the sociology of education field is influenced by economists and political scientists, as well as sociologists.

Arum, Richard, Irenee Beattie, and Karly Ford. 2011. The structure of schooling: Readings in the sociology of education . 2d ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge.

A collection of readings that explore traditional and contemporary sociological issues in education, as well as the myriad theoretical perspectives on studying schools and their impact on social development.

Becker, Gary S. 1975. Human capital: A theoretical and empirical analysis, with special reference to education . Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.

A seminal book that posits that education is a form of human capital that gives rise to better life opportunities.

Bourdieu, Pierre, and Jean-Claude Passeron. 1974. Cultural reproduction and social reproduction. Paper presented at the annual conference of the British Sociological Association, Univ. of Durham, 7–10 April 1970. In Knowledge, education and social change: Papers in the sociology of education . Edited by Richard Brown. Tavistock, UK: Tavistock.

The authors’ main focus was the structural reproduction of disadvantages and inequalities that are caused by cultural reproduction. According to the authors, inequalities are recycled through the education system and other social institutions.

Bowles, Samuel, and Herbert Gintis. 1976. Schooling in capitalist America: Educational reform and the contradictions of economic life . New York: Basic Books.

A groundbreaking work in the sociology of education, the Marxist economists argue that schools reproduce existing inequalities which are also represented in the American workforce.

Coleman, James S. 1966. Equality of educational opportunity . Washington, DC: US Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Office of Education.

Seminal report that fueled debates on school effects and student achievement. The report found that funding has little effect on student achievement, whereas student background and socioeconomic status are much more important in determining academic outcomes for students.

Coleman, James S. 1988. Social capital in the creation of human capital. American Journal of Sociology 94:S95–S120.

Argues that the concept of social capital is an avenue to infuse social structure as a “resource for action.” The author looks at three forms of social capital in the creation of human capital.

Durkheim, Émile. 1956. Education and sociology . New York: Free Press.

This seminal work merges education and sociology into one distinct discipline: sociology of education. For Durkheim, the key function of the education system was to socialize and integrate individuals into larger society.

Putnam, Robert D. 1995. Bowling alone: America’s declining social capital. Journal of Democracy 6.1: 65–78.

DOI: 10.1353/jod.1995.0002

Discusses the decline in civic engagement and political involvement in America. The author argues that such decline in social capital began in 1950.

Schultz, Theodore W. 1961. Investment in human capital. American Economic Review 51.1: 1–17.

Introduces the theory of human capital and makes a direct link between an increase in investment in human capital and the overall increase in workers’ earnings.

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• About Education »
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• Academic Achievement
• Academic Audit for Universities
• Academic Freedom and Tenure in the United States
• Action Research in Education
• Adjuncts in Higher Education in the United States
• Administrator Preparation
• Adolescence
• Advanced Placement and International Baccalaureate Courses
• Advocacy and Activism in Early Childhood
• Alaska Native Education
• Alternative Certification Programs for Educators
• American Indian Education
• Animals in Environmental Education
• Art Education
• Artificial Intelligence and Learning
• Assessing School Leader Effectiveness
• Assessment, Behavioral
• Assessment, Educational
• Assessment in Early Childhood Education
• Assistive Technology
• Augmented Reality in Education
• Beginning-Teacher Induction
• Bilingual Education and Bilingualism
• Black Undergraduate Women: Critical Race and Gender Perspe...
• Black Women in Academia
• Blended Learning
• Case Study in Education Research
• Changing Professional and Academic Identities
• Character Education
• Children’s and Young Adult Literature
• Children's Beliefs about Intelligence
• Children's Rights in Early Childhood Education
• Citizenship Education
• Civic and Social Engagement of Higher Education
• Classroom Learning Environments: Assessing and Investigati...
• Classroom Management
• Coherent Instructional Systems at the School and School Sy...
• College Admissions in the United States
• College Athletics in the United States
• Community Relations
• Comparative Education
• Computer-Assisted Language Learning
• Computer-Based Testing
• Conceptualizing, Measuring, and Evaluating Improvement Net...
• Continuous Improvement and "High Leverage" Educational Pro...
• Counseling in Schools
• Critical Approaches to Gender in Higher Education
• Critical Perspectives on Educational Innovation and Improv...
• Critical Race Theory
• Crossborder and Transnational Higher Education
• Cross-National Research on Continuous Improvement
• Cross-Sector Research on Continuous Learning and Improveme...
• Cultural Diversity in Early Childhood Education
• Culturally Responsive Leadership
• Culturally Responsive Pedagogies
• Culturally Responsive Teacher Education in the United Stat...
• Curriculum Design
• Data Collection in Educational Research
• Data-driven Decision Making in the United States
• Deaf Education
• Design Thinking and the Learning Sciences: Theoretical, Pr...
• Development, Moral
• Dialogic Pedagogy
• Digital Age Teacher, The
• Digital Citizenship
• Digital Divides
• Disabilities
• Distance Learning
• Distributed Leadership
• Doctoral Education and Training
• Early Childhood Education and Care (ECEC) in Denmark
• Early Childhood Education and Development in Mexico
• Early Childhood Education in Aotearoa New Zealand
• Early Childhood Education in Australia
• Early Childhood Education in China
• Early Childhood Education in Europe
• Early Childhood Education in Sub-Saharan Africa
• Early Childhood Education in Sweden
• Early Childhood Education Pedagogy
• Early Childhood Education Policy
• Early Childhood Education, The Arts in
• Early Childhood Mathematics
• Early Childhood Science
• Early Childhood Teacher Education
• Early Childhood Teachers in Aotearoa New Zealand
• Early Years Professionalism and Professionalization Polici...
• Economics of Education
• Education For Children with Autism
• Education for Sustainable Development
• Education Leadership, Empirical Perspectives in
• Education of Native Hawaiian Students
• Education Reform and School Change
• Educational Research Approaches: A Comparison
• Educational Statistics for Longitudinal Research
• Educator Partnerships with Parents and Families with a Foc...
• Emotional and Affective Issues in Environmental and Sustai...
• Emotional and Behavioral Disorders
• English as an International Language for Academic Publishi...
• Environmental and Science Education: Overlaps and Issues
• Environmental Education
• Environmental Education in Brazil
• Epistemic Beliefs
• Equity and Improvement: Engaging Communities in Educationa...
• Equity, Ethnicity, Diversity, and Excellence in Education
• Ethical Research with Young Children
• Ethics and Education
• Ethics of Teaching
• Ethnic Studies
• Evidence-Based Communication Assessment and Intervention
• Family and Community Partnerships in Education
• Family Day Care
• Federal Government Programs and Issues
• Feminization of Labor in Academia
• Finance, Education
• Financial Aid
• Formative Assessment
• Future-Focused Education
• Gender and Achievement
• Gender and Alternative Education
• Gender, Power and Politics in the Academy
• Gender-Based Violence on University Campuses
• Global Mindedness and Global Citizenship Education
• Global University Rankings
• Governance, Education
• Grounded Theory
• Growth of Effective Mental Health Services in Schools in t...
• Higher Education and Globalization
• Higher Education and the Developing World
• Higher Education Faculty Characteristics and Trends in the...
• Higher Education Finance
• Higher Education Governance
• Higher Education Graduate Outcomes and Destinations
• Higher Education in Africa
• Higher Education in China
• Higher Education in Latin America
• Higher Education in the United States, Historical Evolutio...
• Higher Education, International Issues in
• Higher Education Management
• Higher Education Policy
• Higher Education Research
• Higher Education Student Assessment
• High-stakes Testing
• History of Early Childhood Education in the United States
• History of Education in the United States
• History of Technology Integration in Education
• Homeschooling
• Inclusion in Early Childhood: Difference, Disability, and ...
• Indigenous Education in a Global Context
• Indigenous Learning Environments
• Indigenous Students in Higher Education in the United Stat...
• Infant and Toddler Pedagogy
• Inservice Teacher Education
• Integrating Art across the Curriculum
• Intelligence
• Intensive Interventions for Children and Adolescents with ...
• International Perspectives on Academic Freedom
• Intersectionality and Education
• Knowledge Development in Early Childhood
• Leadership Development, Coaching and Feedback for
• Leadership in Early Childhood Education
• Leadership Training with an Emphasis on the United States
• Learning Analytics in Higher Education
• Learning Difficulties
• Learning, Lifelong
• Learning, Multimedia
• Learning Strategies
• Legal Matters and Education Law
• LGBT Youth in Schools
• Linguistic Diversity
• Linguistically Inclusive Pedagogy
• Literacy Development and Language Acquisition
• Literature Reviews
• Mathematics Identity
• Mathematics Instruction and Interventions for Students wit...
• Mathematics Teacher Education
• Measurement for Improvement in Education
• Measurement in Education in the United States
• Meta-Analysis and Research Synthesis in Education
• Methodological Approaches for Impact Evaluation in Educati...
• Methodologies for Conducting Education Research
• Mindfulness, Learning, and Education
• Mixed Methods Research
• Motherscholars
• Multiliteracies in Early Childhood Education
• Multiple Documents Literacy: Theory, Research, and Applica...
• Multivariate Research Methodology
• Museums, Education, and Curriculum
• Music Education
• Narrative Research in Education
• Native American Studies
• Nonformal and Informal Environmental Education
• Note-Taking
• Numeracy Education
• One-to-One Technology in the K-12 Classroom
• Online Education
• Open Education
• Organizing for Continuous Improvement in Education
• Organizing Schools for the Inclusion of Students with Disa...
• Outdoor Play and Learning
• Outdoor Play and Learning in Early Childhood Education
• Pedagogical Leadership
• Pedagogy of Teacher Education, A
• Performance Objectives and Measurement
• Performance-based Research Assessment in Higher Education
• Performance-based Research Funding
• Phenomenology in Educational Research
• Philosophy of Education
• Physical Education
• Podcasts in Education
• Policy Context of United States Educational Innovation and...
• Politics of Education
• Portable Technology Use in Special Education Programs and ...
• Post-humanism and Environmental Education
• Pre-Service Teacher Education
• Problem Solving
• Productivity and Higher Education
• Professional Development
• Professional Learning Communities
• Program Evaluation
• Programs and Services for Students with Emotional or Behav...
• Psychology Learning and Teaching
• Psychometric Issues in the Assessment of English Language ...
• Qualitative Data Analysis Techniques
• Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Research Samp...
• Qualitative Research Design
• Quantitative Research Designs in Educational Research
• Queering the English Language Arts (ELA) Writing Classroom
• Race and Affirmative Action in Higher Education
• Reading Education
• Refugee and New Immigrant Learners
• Relational and Developmental Trauma and Schools
• Relational Pedagogies in Early Childhood Education
• Reliability in Educational Assessments
• Religion in Elementary and Secondary Education in the Unit...
• Researcher Development and Skills Training within the Cont...
• Research-Practice Partnerships in Education within the Uni...
• Response to Intervention
• Restorative Practices
• Risky Play in Early Childhood Education
• Role of Gender Equity Work on University Campuses through ...
• Scale and Sustainability of Education Innovation and Impro...
• Scaling Up Research-based Educational Practices
• School Accreditation
• School Culture
• School District Budgeting and Financial Management in the ...
• School Improvement through Inclusive Education
• School Reform
• Schools, Private and Independent
• School-Wide Positive Behavior Support
• Science Education
• Secondary to Postsecondary Transition Issues
• Self-Regulated Learning
• Self-Study of Teacher Education Practices
• Service-Learning
• Severe Disabilities
• Single Salary Schedule
• Single-sex Education
• Single-Subject Research Design
• Social Context of Education
• Social Network Analysis
• Social Pedagogy
• Social Science and Education Research
• Social Studies Education
• Sociology of Education
• Standards-Based Education
• Statistical Assumptions
• Student Access, Equity, and Diversity in Higher Education
• Student Assignment Policy
• Student Engagement in Tertiary Education
• Student Learning, Development, Engagement, and Motivation ...
• Student Participation
• Student Voice in Teacher Development
• Sustainability Education in Early Childhood Education
• Sustainability in Early Childhood Education
• Sustainability in Higher Education
• Teacher Beliefs and Epistemologies
• Teacher Collaboration in School Improvement
• Teacher Evaluation and Teacher Effectiveness
• Teacher Preparation
• Teacher Training and Development
• Teacher Unions and Associations
• Teacher-Student Relationships
• Teaching Critical Thinking
• Technologies, Teaching, and Learning in Higher Education
• Technology Education in Early Childhood
• Technology, Educational
• Technology-based Assessment
• The Bologna Process
• The Regulation of Standards in Higher Education
• Theories of Educational Leadership
• Three Conceptions of Literacy: Media, Narrative, and Gamin...
• Tracking and Detracking
• Traditions of Quality Improvement in Education
• Transformative Learning
• Transitions in Early Childhood Education
• Tribally Controlled Colleges and Universities in the Unite...
• Understanding the Psycho-Social Dimensions of Schools and ...
• University Faculty Roles and Responsibilities in the Unite...
• Using Ethnography in Educational Research
• Value of Higher Education for Students and Other Stakehold...
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Sociology of Education (SOE) provides a forum for studies in the sociology of education and human social development. SOE publishes research that examines how social institutions and individuals’ experiences within these institutions affect educational processes and social development. Such research may span various levels of analysis, ranging from the individual to the structure of relations among social and educational institutions. In an increasingly complex society, important educational issues arise throughout the life cycle.

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Sociology of Education

Editor: John Diamond, Brown University, and Odis Johnson, Johns Hopkins University (2022-2024) Published: January, April, July, October ISSN: 0038-0407

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16.2 Sociological Perspectives on Education

Learning objectives.

• List the major functions of education.
• Explain the problems that conflict theory sees in education.
• Describe how symbolic interactionism understands education.

The major sociological perspectives on education fall nicely into the functional, conflict, and symbolic interactionist approaches (Ballantine & Hammack, 2009). Table 16.1 “Theory Snapshot” summarizes what these approaches say.

Table 16.1 Theory Snapshot

The Functions of Education

Functional theory stresses the functions that education serves in fulfilling a society’s various needs. Perhaps the most important function of education is socialization . If children need to learn the norms, values, and skills they need to function in society, then education is a primary vehicle for such learning. Schools teach the three Rs, as we all know, but they also teach many of the society’s norms and values. In the United States, these norms and values include respect for authority, patriotism (remember the Pledge of Allegiance?), punctuality, individualism, and competition. Regarding these last two values, American students from an early age compete as individuals over grades and other rewards. The situation is quite the opposite in Japan, where, as we saw in Chapter 4 “Socialization” , children learn the traditional Japanese values of harmony and group belonging from their schooling (Schneider & Silverman, 2010). They learn to value their membership in their homeroom, or kumi , and are evaluated more on their kumi ’s performance than on their own individual performance. How well a Japanese child’s kumi does is more important than how well the child does as an individual.

A second function of education is social integration . For a society to work, functionalists say, people must subscribe to a common set of beliefs and values. As we saw, the development of such common views was a goal of the system of free, compulsory education that developed in the 19th century. Thousands of immigrant children in the United States today are learning English, U.S. history, and other subjects that help prepare them for the workforce and integrate them into American life. Such integration is a major goal of the English-only movement, whose advocates say that only English should be used to teach children whose native tongue is Spanish, Vietnamese, or whatever other language their parents speak at home. Critics of this movement say it slows down these children’s education and weakens their ethnic identity (Schildkraut, 2005).

A third function of education is social placement . Beginning in grade school, students are identified by teachers and other school officials either as bright and motivated or as less bright and even educationally challenged. Depending on how they are identified, children are taught at the level that is thought to suit them best. In this way they are prepared in the most appropriate way possible for their later station in life. Whether this process works as well as it should is an important issue, and we explore it further when we discuss school tracking shortly.

Social and cultural innovation is a fourth function of education. Our scientists cannot make important scientific discoveries and our artists and thinkers cannot come up with great works of art, poetry, and prose unless they have first been educated in the many subjects they need to know for their chosen path.

Figure 16.1 The Functions of Education

Schools ideally perform many important functions in modern society. These include socialization, social integration, social placement, and social and cultural innovation.

Education also involves several latent functions, functions that are by-products of going to school and receiving an education rather than a direct effect of the education itself. One of these is child care . Once a child starts kindergarten and then first grade, for several hours a day the child is taken care of for free. The establishment of peer relationships is another latent function of schooling. Most of us met many of our friends while we were in school at whatever grade level, and some of those friendships endure the rest of our lives. A final latent function of education is that it keeps millions of high school students out of the full-time labor force . This fact keeps the unemployment rate lower than it would be if they were in the labor force.

Education and Inequality

Conflict theory does not dispute most of the functions just described. However, it does give some of them a different slant and talks about various ways in which education perpetuates social inequality (Hill, Macrine, & Gabbard, 2010; Liston, 1990). One example involves the function of social placement. As most schools track their students starting in grade school, the students thought by their teachers to be bright are placed in the faster tracks (especially in reading and arithmetic), while the slower students are placed in the slower tracks; in high school, three common tracks are the college track, vocational track, and general track.

Such tracking does have its advantages; it helps ensure that bright students learn as much as their abilities allow them, and it helps ensure that slower students are not taught over their heads. But, conflict theorists say, tracking also helps perpetuate social inequality by locking students into faster and lower tracks. Worse yet, several studies show that students’ social class and race and ethnicity affect the track into which they are placed, even though their intellectual abilities and potential should be the only things that matter: white, middle-class students are more likely to be tracked “up,” while poorer students and students of color are more likely to be tracked “down.” Once they are tracked, students learn more if they are tracked up and less if they are tracked down. The latter tend to lose self-esteem and begin to think they have little academic ability and thus do worse in school because they were tracked down. In this way, tracking is thought to be good for those tracked up and bad for those tracked down. Conflict theorists thus say that tracking perpetuates social inequality based on social class and race and ethnicity (Ansalone, 2006; Oakes, 2005).

Social inequality is also perpetuated through the widespread use of standardized tests. Critics say these tests continue to be culturally biased, as they include questions whose answers are most likely to be known by white, middle-class students, whose backgrounds have afforded them various experiences that help them answer the questions. They also say that scores on standardized tests reflect students’ socioeconomic status and experiences in addition to their academic abilities. To the extent this critique is true, standardized tests perpetuate social inequality (Grodsky, Warren, & Felts, 2008).

As we will see, schools in the United States also differ mightily in their resources, learning conditions, and other aspects, all of which affect how much students can learn in them. Simply put, schools are unequal, and their very inequality helps perpetuate inequality in the larger society. Children going to the worst schools in urban areas face many more obstacles to their learning than those going to well-funded schools in suburban areas. Their lack of learning helps ensure they remain trapped in poverty and its related problems.

Conflict theorists also say that schooling teaches a hidden curriculum , by which they mean a set of values and beliefs that support the status quo, including the existing social hierarchy (Booher-Jennings, 2008) (see Chapter 4 “Socialization” ). Although no one plots this behind closed doors, our schoolchildren learn patriotic values and respect for authority from the books they read and from various classroom activities.

Symbolic Interactionism and School Behavior

Symbolic interactionist studies of education examine social interaction in the classroom, on the playground, and in other school venues. These studies help us understand what happens in the schools themselves, but they also help us understand how what occurs in school is relevant for the larger society. Some studies, for example, show how children’s playground activities reinforce gender-role socialization. Girls tend to play more cooperative games, while boys play more competitive sports (Thorne, 1993) (see Chapter 11 “Gender and Gender Inequality” ).

Another body of research shows that teachers’ views about students can affect how much the students learn. When teachers think students are smart, they tend to spend more time with them, to call on them, and to praise them when they give the right answer. Not surprisingly these students learn more because of their teachers’ behavior. But when teachers think students are less bright, they tend to spend less time with them and act in a way that leads the students to learn less. One of the first studies to find this example of a self-fulfilling prophecy was conducted by Robert Rosenthal and Lenore Jacobson (1968). They tested a group of students at the beginning of the school year and told their teachers which students were bright and which were not. They tested the students again at the end of the school year; not surprisingly the bright students had learned more during the year than the less bright ones. But it turned out that the researchers had randomly decided which students would be designated bright and less bright. Because the “bright” students learned more during the school year without actually being brighter at the beginning, their teachers’ behavior must have been the reason. In fact, their teachers did spend more time with them and praised them more often than was true for the “less bright” students. To the extent this type of self-fulfilling prophecy occurs, it helps us understand why tracking is bad for the students tracked down.

Research guided by the symbolic interactionist perspective suggests that teachers’ expectations may influence how much their students learn. When teachers expect little of their students, their students tend to learn less.

ijiwaru jimbo – Pre-school colour pack – CC BY-NC-ND 2.0.

Other research focuses on how teachers treat girls and boys. Several studies from the 1970s through the 1990s found that teachers call on boys more often and praise them more often (American Association of University Women Educational Foundation, 1998; Jones & Dindia, 2004). Teachers did not do this consciously, but their behavior nonetheless sent an implicit message to girls that math and science are not for girls and that they are not suited to do well in these subjects. This body of research stimulated efforts to educate teachers about the ways in which they may unwittingly send these messages and about strategies they could use to promote greater interest and achievement by girls in math and science (Battey, Kafai, Nixon, & Kao, 2007).

Key Takeaways

• According to the functional perspective, education helps socialize children and prepare them for their eventual entrance into the larger society as adults.
• The conflict perspective emphasizes that education reinforces inequality in the larger society.
• The symbolic interactionist perspective focuses on social interaction in the classroom, on school playgrounds, and at other school-related venues. Social interaction contributes to gender-role socialization, and teachers’ expectations may affect their students’ performance.

For Your Review

• Review how the functionalist, conflict, and symbolic interactionist perspectives understand and explain education. Which of these three approaches do you most prefer? Why?

American Association of University Women Educational Foundation. (1998). Gender gaps: Where schools still fail our children . Washington, DC: American Association of University Women Educational Foundation.

Ansalone, G. (2006). Tracking: A return to Jim Crow. Race, Gender & Class, 13 , 1–2.

Ballantine, J. H., & Hammack, F. M. (2009). The sociology of education: A systematic analysis (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Battey, D., Kafai, Y., Nixon, A. S., & Kao, L. L. (2007). Professional development for teachers on gender equity in the sciences: Initiating the conversation. Teachers College Record, 109 (1), 221–243.

Booher-Jennings, J. (2008). Learning to label: Socialisation, gender, and the hidden curriculum of high-stakes testing. British Journal of Sociology of Education, 29 , 149–160.

Grodsky, E., Warren, J. R., & Felts, E. (2008). Testing and social stratification in American education. Annual Review of Sociology, 34 (1), 385–404.

Hill, D., Macrine, S., & Gabbard, D. (Eds.). (2010). Capitalist education: Globalisation and the politics of inequality . New York, NY: Routledge; Liston, D. P. (1990). Capitalist schools: Explanation and ethics in radical studies of schooling . New York, NY: Routledge.

Jones, S. M., & Dindia, K. (2004). A meta-analystic perspective on sex equity in the classroom. Review of Educational Research, 74 , 443–471.

Oakes, J. (2005). Keeping track: How schools structure inequality (2nd ed.). New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

Rosenthal, R., & Jacobson, L. (1968). Pygmalion in the classroom . New York, NY: Holt.

Schildkraut, D. J. (2005). Press “one” for English: Language policy, public opinion, and American identity . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Schneider, L., & Silverman, A. (2010). Global sociology: Introducing five contemporary societies (5th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

Thorne, B. (1993). Gender play: Girls and boys in school . New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.

Sociology Copyright © 2016 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

Schools and colleges are transforming the lives of individual learners and their families. They play a core role in society. At the same time, they are continuously transformed by politics, markets, and scientific, technological, and cultural change. Sociologists of education and higher education at Harvard are engaged in basic and applied research, both contemporary and historical, and focusing on the United States as well as on cross-national and cross-cultural analyses. The broad array of research in this cluster applies core sociological concepts, such as equity and (in)equality; race and ethnicity; social networks; immigration; stratification; organizations; culture; social mobility; socialization and others to the study of education. The research cluster has links to the Graduate School of Education (GSE), the Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) in Education, the Secondary Field in Education Studies and the Mahindra Seminar on Universities: Past, Present and Future.

Affiliated Graduate Students

Deirdre Bloome

Christina ciocca eller, christina cross, emily fairchild, kristie lebeau, joscha legewie, amelia o'halloran, manja klemenčič edits open-access bloomsbury handbook.

Manja Klemenčič edited the open-access Bloomsbury Handbook of Student Politics and Representation in Higher Education having trained student leaders across the globe to contribute chapters along with established researchers.

Christina Ciocca Eller's recent paper urges college ratings focused on real-life outcomes

Harvard Gazette discusses Christina Ciocca Eller's research in a paper published this month in the Journal of American Sociology. Ciocca Eller calls for new government and media ratings that measure how U.S. institutions of higher education shape the...

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The Sociology of Education

Studying the Relationships Between Education and Society

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The sociology of education is a diverse and vibrant subfield that features theory and research focused on how education as a social institution is affected by and affects other social institutions and the social structure overall, and how various social forces shape the policies, practices, and outcomes of schooling .

While education is typically viewed in most societies as a pathway to personal development, success, and social mobility, and as a cornerstone of democracy, sociologists who study education take a critical view of these assumptions to study how the institution actually operates within society. They consider what other social functions education might have, like for example socialization into gender and class roles, and what other social outcomes contemporary educational institutions might produce, like reproducing class and racial hierarchies, among others.

Theoretical Approaches within the Sociology of Education

Classical French sociologist Émile Durkheim was one of the first sociologists to consider the social function of education. He believed that moral education was necessary for society to exist because it provided the basis for the social solidarity that held society together. By writing about education in this way, Durkheim established the functionalist perspective on education . This perspective champions the work of socialization that takes place within the educational institution, including the teaching of society’s culture, including moral values, ethics, politics, religious beliefs, habits, and norms. According to this view, the socializing function of education also serves to promote social control and to curb deviant behavior.

The symbolic interaction  approach to studying education focuses on interactions during the schooling process and the outcomes of those interactions. For instance, interactions between students and teachers, and social forces that shape those interactions like race, class, and gender, create expectations on both parts. Teachers expect certain behaviors from certain students, and those expectations, when communicated to students through interaction, can actually produce those very behaviors. This is called the “teacher expectancy effect.” For example, if a white teacher expects a Black student to perform below average on a math test when compared to white students, over time the teacher may act in ways that encourage Black students to underperform.

Stemming from Marx's theory of the relationship between workers and capitalism, the conflict theory approach to education examines the way educational institutions and the hierarchy of degree levels contribute to the reproduction of hierarchies and inequalities in society. This approach recognizes that schooling reflects class, racial, and gender stratification, and tends to reproduce it. For example, sociologists have documented in many different settings how "tracking" of students based on class, race, and gender effectively sorts students into classes of laborers and managers/entrepreneurs, which reproduces the already existing class structure rather than producing social mobility.

Sociologists who work from this perspective also assert that educational institutions and school curricula are products of the dominant worldviews, beliefs, and values of the majority, which typically produces educational experiences that marginalize and disadvantage those in the minority in terms of race, class, gender, sexuality, and ability, among other things. By operating in this fashion, the educational institution is involved in the work of reproducing power, domination, oppression, and inequality within society . It is for this reason that there have long been campaigns across the U.S. to include ethnic studies courses in middle schools and high schools, in order to balance a curriculum otherwise structured by a white, colonialist worldview. In fact, sociologists have found that providing ethnic studies courses to students of color who are on the brink of failing out or dropping out of high school effectively re-engages and inspires them, raises their overall grade point average and improves their academic performance overall.

Notable Sociological Studies of Education

• Learning to Labour , 1977, by Paul Willis. An ethnographic study set in England focused on the reproduction of the working class within the school system.
• Preparing for Power: America's Elite Boarding Schools , 1987, by Cookson and Persell . An ethnographic study set at elite boarding schools in the U.S. focused on the reproduction of the social and economic elite.
• Women Without Class: Girls, Race, and Identity , 2003, by Julie Bettie. An ethnographic study of how gender, race, and class intersect within the schooling experience to leave some without the cultural capital necessary for social mobility within society.
• Academic Profiling: Latinos, Asian Americans, and the Achievement Gap , 2013, by Gilda Ochoa. An ethnographic study within a California high school of how race, class, and gender intersect to produce the "achievement gap" between Latinos and Asian Americans.
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Sociology of Education

This program will give you a strong disciplinary grounding that allows you to approach education questions with a sociological lens. You will train in qualitative and quantitative sociological research methods, sociological theory, and the sociology of education. Faculty research and core courses primarily focus on US education, urban education, higher education, and US educational equity issues.

Master of Arts Sociology of Education

Get strong analytical and methodological training in a sociological approach to education-related questions and problems.

Currently not accepting applications.

Doctor of Philosophy Sociology of Education

Analyze educational problems and issues using research methods of sociology.

Mercy Agyepong

Assistant professor of sociology of education.

L'Heureux Lewis-Mccoy

Associate professor of sociology of education.

Lisa M. Stulberg

Affiliated faculty.

Hua-Yu Sebastian Cherng (程華宇）

Vice dean for research and equity; associate professor of international education.

Rachel Fish

Associate professor of special education.

David Kirkland

Professor of english and urban education, collaborative fas faculty.

Mary Beth Hunzaker

Associate professor of sociology.

Ann Morning

• Sociology and Education

Sociological Imagination

Our program prepares change agents to challenge the inequality within our schools through a deep understanding of its social, political and economic causes.

Welcome to the Sociology & Education program

The sociological examination of education has a long tradition at Teachers College, a graduate school with a strong commitment to social justice. Our Sociology and Education program, one of the oldest and most revered such programs in the nation, provides a curriculum that supports students in developing and fostering their “sociological imagination” – or an understanding of the relationship between micro-level day-to-day experiences and the larger, macro-level structures in which we all live, between our biography and the arc of history. Many students come to our program after having experienced first-hand the impact of inequality in their lives and/or the lives of students they teach. They seek answers to their questions about the larger educational system, the policies that perpetuate inequality, and the disparate impact on students across place, race and gender identity, and socio-economic status.  They want to know how things came to be the way they are today. Through this micro-macro lens, our program enables students to understand educational and social inequality through the careful analysis of evidence. Our coursework and the research opportunities prepare change agents to challenge the inequality within our schools through a deep understanding of its social, political and economic causes.

Our curriculum features a set of Core Requirements in the Foundation of Social Analysis of Education, Education and Social Inequality, Education and Social Organization, and Education and Social Change. The program also requires students to learn both quantitative and qualitative research methods for all of our degree programs. Our students can also opt to complete the Policy Concentration requirements. Our Master’s students choose between taking a Comprehensive Exam or completing an Integrative Project, or a Master’s Thesis, as their Culminating Experience. Doctoral students will complete a Certification Exam and research and write a dissertation.

The curriculum emphasizes the social context of schools in both cities and suburbs; the organization and structure of schooling; and the intersection of race, ethnicity, social class and gender with educational policies and practices. Students are trained in both quantitative and qualitative research methods. Hands-on research opportunities are available on a wide range of projects, including those examining racial segregation, urban gentrification, conditions of New York City Public Schools, suburban demographic change and its impact on schools, and school organization.

The program faculty for the Sociology and Education program includes sociologists from several other programs at the College as well as other nearby academic institutions. Faculty strengths are in sociology of education generally, but also in organizational studies, the sociology of teachers and teaching, stratification, racial inequality, critical race theory and urban sociology. They are actively engaged in the analysis and evaluation of educational policies and programs designed to serve educationally disadvantaged populations.

The program in Sociology and Education also offers an optional Policy Concentration that overlaps with many of our degree requirements. For more information on this concentration, which is open to students throughout Teachers College, please contact Professor Aaron Pallas.

Sociology and Education Virtual Information Session

Fall 2023 webinar for prospective students that p remiered  on tuesday, november 14, 2023 at 7:00 pm.  come hear about our program from faculty, students, and staff , choose your degree.

The graduate program in Sociology and Education offers four degree programs: the M.A., the Ed.M., the Ed.D., and the Ph.D. Each program is designed to meet the needs of students with a particular combination of prior experience and career objectives. The M.A., Ed.M., and Ed.D. programs may be completed on a part-time basis, and most of our classes are offered in the evening hours. The Ph.D. program requires full-time study. Although students from all of the degree programs in sociology and education are prepared to assume positions in education institutions, the program does not offer professional certification for teaching or school/district leadership. Certification programs are available in other departments at Teachers College.

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M.A. degree in the Program of Sociology and Education - minimum of 33 points.

The Master of Arts program in Sociology and Education provides an introduction to the application of sociological perspectives to contemporary education issues. The program provides coverage of the core principles and methods of sociology as they are applied to research and analysis. An optional  Policy Concentration enables students to focus more closely on the design and effects of education policies. Students completing this program are prepared to assume positions as general analysts in a variety of organizations devoted to applied educational research, policy making, advocacy, consulting, and direct educational service.

Ed.M. Degree in the Program in Sociology and Education – minimum of 60 points

The Master of Education in Sociology and Education is an advanced master’s degree typically pursued by students who already possess a master’s degree in a substantive area of education or by students without a prior master’s degree who want an opportunity to combine study in sociology and education with another area in education. The program involves study of sociological perspectives and methods in the context of contemporary education issues. Through an optional Policy Concentration , students can examine a variety of education policy questions in more depth. Current substantive areas that can be combined with study in sociology and policy include evaluation and institutional analysis, human development, technology, curriculum, administration, and foundations. Students completing this program are prepared to assume positions as specialists in a variety of organizations devoted to applied educational research, policy making, advocacy, consulting, and management of educational activities.

The coursework for the Ed.D., which totals a minimum of 90 points, has seven components: basic social research design and methods, advanced social research design and methods, social theory, core coursework in the sociology of education, seminars and colloquia, coursework in the social context of teaching and learning, and elective courses. Beginning in the 2024-2025 academic year, the Ed.D. degree required credit load for this program will change from 90 to 75 credits. Up to 30 credits from prior graduate studies may be transferred, subject to advisor approval. Prospective new students who apply for spring, summer or fall 2024 terms and are successfully admitted will follow the new reduced Ed.D. credit requirements.  

The Doctor of Education (Ed.D.) program in Sociology and Education is designed to provide broad training in the social sciences, education, and education policy. The program prepares students for positions in teaching, research, and policy through interdisciplinary study grounded in the sociological perspective. All coursework is available at Teachers College, and both part-time and full-time study is possible. Students completing this program are prepared to assume positions in college and university programs in education as well as leadership positions in a variety of organizations devoted to applied education research, policy making, advocacy, consulting, and management of educational activities.

The coursework for the Ph.D., which totals a minimum of 75 points, has seven components: social theory, basic social research design and methods, advanced social research design and methods, foundational coursework in sociology, core coursework in the sociology of education, seminars and colloquia, and elective courses.

The Doctor of Philosophy in Education (Ph.D.) program in Sociology and Education is designed for students with a strong background and interest in the discipline of sociology and its application to education. The Ph.D. is a highly specialized degree that requires full-time study and substantial coursework to be done at Teachers College, Graduate School of Arts and Sciences at Columbia University, or through the Inter-University Doctoral Consortium , which provides for cross-registration among member institutions, including NYU, CUNY Graduate Center, and Princeton University. Students completing this program are prepared to assume positions in college and university programs focused on sociological research in the field of education.

Student Profiles

Yeonsoo Choi is a Ph.D. student in Sociology and Education at Teachers College, Columbia University. She earned her B.A. and M.A. in Education from Yonsei University, South Korea. Her research interests include the sociology of elite education, globalization and education policy, school choice, and critical policy analysis. Yeonsoo is interested in better understanding how broader social discourses shape education policies and students’ educational experiences. Prior to coming to Teachers College, she worked as a research assistant for education policy research projects funded by the Ministry of Education, South Korea, and the Seoul Metropolitan Office of Education.

Previous Education:

B.A. in Education, Yonsei University and M.A. in Education with concentration in Curriculum and Instruction, Yonsei University

Shawn Saunders is an M.Ed candidate in the Sociology and Education program. Before TC, Shawn received a B.A. in Anthropology from Brown University and a M.A.T. from Relay Graduate School of Education with a focus in Childhood Education. 

Shawn has spent 9 years teaching various grades in elementary schools in Brooklyn, most recently teaching 4th Grade in Canarsie. During the summer, Shawn works as the Academic Director for Jacob's Ladder, a sleep-away summer camp in Virginia for gifted middle school students.

Through his work with students and other educators, Shawn has developed many interests for study including the intersection of race, socioeconomic status and education, evaluation systems for students and teachers, and the effectiveness of discipline and school systems in urban contexts (with a particular interest in these topics within the world of charter schools). 

Shawn has experienced the educational process in the private, public, and charter sectors as a student and teacher. This has allowed him to see the best of these spaces as well as areas in which there is still work to be done. By joining the TC/Columbia community, Shawn hopes to conduct research that helps better the educational experience for both educators and students especially within urban environments.

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SOC-101 Introduction to Sociology

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Sociology attempts to understand how societies function. The course explores how social forces influence our lives and our chances for success. It also examines social groups, the relationships among social groups, and the ways groups get and maintain power.

ENG 102 or the equivalent

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Dr. Kimberlee Sharp wins Meece Award for Excellence in Social Studies Education

• 22 August 2024

The Kentucky Council for Social Studies (KCSS) recently awarded Sharp the Meece Award for Excellence in Social Studies Education at its annual conference in July.

As KCSS's highest honor, it recognizes excellence in social studies education in Kentucky. It factors in qualities like:

• Contributions to history, geography, economics, and civic education in Kentucky
• Supporting the advancement of social studies curriculum and instruction
• Going above and beyond to support social studies education

"We are very pleased that Dr. Sharp has been recognized for her outstanding work in the social studies," said Kim Sargent, president of KCSS. "She has made numerous contributions to the content area and the profession of teaching social studies. She is deserving of this council's highest honor."

Sharp has been with MSU for 20 years, serving as an assistant professor (2005-10) and associate professor (2011-18) before taking on her current role in 2019. With a specialty area in elementary and middle grade social studies education. She believes that while elementary schools have frequently put social studies on the "backburner" compared to other subjects, equipping college students to help educate young learners in social studies is extremely important.

"The social studies in K-12 education are the 'heartbeat' of the school curriculum. Social studies teach young learners (through college) how to be participatory citizens in a diverse, democratic society," Sharp said. "Our subject teaches students to be active in their communities, to discover and utilize their political voices in useful and constitutionally protected ways, and to learn the power their voice and vote has on our country's government. In sum, the social studies prepare students for civic life."

Dr. Kimberlee Sharp can be reached at [email protected] or 606-783-2853 .

To learn more about MSU's Ernst & Sara Lane Volgenau College of Education and its programs, call 606-783-2162 or email [email protected] .

Photo, left to right: Dr. Kimberlee Sharp receiving the Meece Award for Excellence in Social Studies Education from KCSS President Rebecca Ingram.

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Iowa Department of Education awarded over $2.85 million in therapeutic classroom grants to 10 school districts

• Tuesday, August 20, 2024
• Press Release

DES MOINES — The Iowa Department of Education awarded over $2.85 million in competitive grants to 10 school districts to establish therapeutic classrooms for learners whose social-emotional or behavioral needs impact their ability to be successful in their learning environment.

“Therapeutic classrooms across Iowa provide vibrant, safe, and healthy learning environments to best support students’ cognitive and behavioral development,” said Iowa Department of Education Director McKenzie Snow. “We commend this year’s awardees and their community partners for their leadership and commitment to implement best practices in skill building, stress and trauma coping, mental health treatment, and crisis prevention and intervention.”

The districts awarded a Therapeutic Classroom Incentive Grant for the 2024-25 school year are:

• Clinton Community School District
• College Community School District 
• Fort Madison Community School District
• Fremont Mills Community School District
• Glenwood Community School District
• Ottumwa Community School District
• North Scott Community School District
• Sergeant Bluff-Luton Community School District
• Washington Community School District
• Woodbine Community School District

The Therapeutic Classroom Incentive Grant was established through state legislation signed into law in 2020 and is part of a statewide effort to increase mental health supports for children, youth and families. This is the fourth round of funds. Twenty-two school districts were awarded grants during the first three rounds of funds in the 2021-22, 2022-23 and 2023-24 school years.

In determining awards, priority was given to competitive district applicants who had applied during the last year and had not received an award. Additional consideration was given to representation across small, medium and large districts; collaboration with other agencies to provide the therapeutic classrooms; and partnership across Mental Health and Disability Service (MHDS) regions. 

Proposals submitted by the 10 awarded districts will serve over 300 pre-K through grade 12 students, establish 27 new therapeutic classrooms and will expand mental health supports for youth across five of the state’s MHDS and Area Education Agency regions. 

Grants will be distributed this fall for district implementation during the 2024-25 school year.

See the Therapeutic Classroom Grant webpage for more information.

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HHS Launches National Public Education Campaign Ahead of Respiratory Virus Season

Campaign provides evidence-based information on vaccines for flu, COVID-19, and RSV

WASHINGTON (AUGUST 19, 2024) — The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) launched a new national campaign today to inform the public about common respiratory viruses and available vaccines. The campaign, Risk Less. Do More ., aims to increase awareness of vaccines that reduce serious illness from influenza (flu), COVID-19, and respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) in high-risk populations and to limit the spread of these viruses among all Americans.

“Vaccines for COVID-19, flu, and RSV have helped to save millions of lives, keep countless people out of the hospital, and provided peace of mind for the country. As fall approaches and people spend more time indoors, I encourage everyone to protect themselves and their loved ones by getting vaccinated,” said HHS Secretary Xavier Becerra. “The Biden-Harris Administration is committed to providing accessible and actionable health information for all U.S. residents, across age, geography, and race/ethnicity.  We will continue working every day to ensure the tools are available, and I hope everyone takes this opportunity to stay healthy.”

Flu, COVID-19, and RSV continue to take a heavy toll across the United States. During a 6-month period last fall and winter, these infections caused 800,000 hospitalizations. Without immunization, the risk of serious illness remains highest in certain populations, including adults ages 65 and older, residents of long-term care facilities, pregnant people, and those living in rural areas. Some racial and ethnic groups, including Black and Hispanic populations in the United States, are also at higher risk.

“Respiratory illness from flu, COVID-19, and RSV viruses usually surge during colder weather and can cause severe disease, hospitalization, and even death,” said HHS Assistant Secretary for Public Affairs Jeffery A Nesbit. “The goal of the  Risk Less. Do More . campaign is to increase confidence in vaccines that play an important role in preventing severe illness from these viruses and to provide the information that the American people need to make the decision to get vaccinated this fall and winter.”

Risk Less. Do More. will deliver research-based messages through paid advertising and media coverage on TV, radio, print, social, digital, and out-of-home platforms. The campaign will reach all audiences, with a particular focus on those at highest risk, including older Americans and people who may have less access to health care information and support, with facts about life-saving vaccines that can help them avoid severe illness. HHS will also partner with state and local health departments and national, state, and community organizations to ensure all audiences have access to information from sources they trust.

“ Risk Less. Do More.  will be a crucial element of a multi-layered response to encourage people to get vaccinated so they can keep doing more of what they love,” said May Malik, Senior Advisor for Public Education Campaigns at HHS. “The campaign is working closely with federal agencies, as well as national and local partners, to amplify and extend the reach of the campaign.”

HHS previously spearheaded the COVID-19 vaccination campaign We Can Do This, one of the largest public education campaigns in U.S. history, which saved tens of thousands of lives and billions of dollars in costs related to COVID-19 infections.  The Campaign encouraged 22.3 million people to complete their primary COVID-19 vaccination series between April 2021 and March 2022 .

For more information on the Risk Less. Do More. campaign, please visit RiskLessDoMore.hhs.gov .

For more information about respiratory illnesses, please visit cdc.gov/RiskLessDoMore .

About Risk Less. Do More . The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) Pan Respiratory Virus (PRV) Public Education Campaign (PEC), Risk Less. Do More . seeks to inform the public about influenza (flu), COVID-19, and respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) vaccines.

The campaign aims to motivate higher uptake of flu, COVID-19, and RSV vaccines during the 2024–2025 season, reducing the public health burden of respiratory viruses for individuals, families, communities, and the nation. Additionally, the campaign will increase public confidence in flu, COVID-19, and RSV vaccines; cultivate vaccine literacy; and enhance awareness of vaccine accessibility, especially within vulnerable communities. For more information, visit RiskLessDoMore.hhs.gov .

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Yekaterinburg & Sverdlovsk Oblast

History, Politics, and Economics

Yekaterinburg lies at the crossroads between Europe and Asia, east of the slopes of the Ural Mountains in central Russia. The continental divide is 30 kilometers west of the city. Yekaterinburg is Russia’s third or fourth largest city with a population of 1.5 million. It was founded in 1723 and is named for Peter the Great’s wife, Catherine I. Peter recognized the importance of Yekaterinburg and the surrounding region for the rapid industrial development necessary to bolster Russia’s military power.Today, Yekaterinburg is primarily known both as a center of heavy industry and steel-making, the Russian equivalent of Pittsburgh, and as a major freight transportation hub. Its major industries include ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, chemicals, timber, and pulp and paper. Yekaterinburg has long been an important trading center for goods coming from Siberia, Central Asia and Europe. The city also has a reputation as a center of higher education and research. The Urals Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences is located there with its 18 institutes and numerous research facilities linked to industry. Yekaterinburg is also well known as a center for the performing arts. Its Opera and Ballet Theater dates back to 1912. The Urals Philharmonic Orchestra is the largest symphony orchestra in central Russia.

Yekaterinburg is the capital of Sverdlovsk Oblast (an oblast is the equivalent of a American state). Economically, Sverdlovsk is among 10 of the 89 administrative subdivisions of the Russian Federation that are net contributors to the federal budget. Sverdlovsk has produced many prominent political figures, including Russia’s first President, Boris Yeltsin, and Russia’s first elected Governor, Eduard Rossel. Since the establishment of the Russian Federation, Sverdlovsk Oblast has been one of the nation’s leaders in political and economic reform. In 1996, Sverdlovsk became the first oblast to conclude agreements with the Federal Government granting it greater political autonomy and the right to conduct its own foreign economic relations.

Economic reform has gathered momentum in Sverdlovsk Oblast. The majority of Sverdlovsk’s industries have been privatized. 75% of enterprises are at least partially owned by private interests. About three-quarters of retail sales and industrial output is generated by private enterprise. Services have grown to 40 percent of oblast GDP, up from only 16 percent in 1992. About 25,000 small businesses are registered in the oblast. Small businesses make up about one-third of the construction, trade and food service.

Industry and Natural Resources

Sverdlovvsk Oblast, like most of the Urals region, possesses abundant natural resources. It is one of Russia’s leaders in mineral extraction. Sverdlovsk produces 70% of Russia’s bauxite, 60% of asbestos, 23% of iron, 97% of vanadium, 6% of copper and 2% of nickel. Forests cover 65% of the oblast. It also produces 6% of Russia’s timber and 7% of its plywood. Sverdlovsk has the largest GDP of any oblast in the Urals. The oblast’s major exports include steel (20% of its foreign trade turnover), chemicals (11%), copper (11%), aluminum (8%) and titanium (3%). In terms of industrial output, Sverdlovsk ranks second only to Moscow Oblast and produces 5% of Russia’s total. Ferrous metallurgy and machine-building still constitute a major part of the oblast’s economy. Yekaterinburg is well known for its concentration of industrial manufacturing plants. The city’s largest factories produce oil extraction equipment, tubes and pipes, steel rollers, steam turbines and manufacturing equipment for other factories.

Non-ferrous metallurgy remains a growth sector. The Verkhnaya Salda Titanium Plant (VSMPO) is the largest titanium works in Russia and the second largest in the world. A second growth sector is food production and processing, with many firms purchasing foreign equipment to upgrade production. The financial crisis has increased demand for domestically produced foodstuffs, as consumers can no longer afford more expensive imported products. Many of Yekaterinburg’s leading food processors — including the Konfi Chocolate Factory, Myasomoltorg Ice-Cream Plant, Myasokombinat Meat Packing Plant and Patra Brewery — have remained financially stable and look forward to growth.

Foreign Trade and Investment

Sverdlovsk Oblast offers investors opportunities mainly in raw materials (metals and minerals) and heavy industries (oil extraction and pipeline equipment). There is also interest in importing Western products in the fields of telecommunications, food processing, safety and security systems, and medicine and construction materials. Both Sverdlovsk Oblast and Yekaterinburg city officials have encouraged foreign investment and created a receptive business climate. The oblast has a Foreign Investment Support Department and a website which profiles over 200 local companies. The city government opened its own investment support center in 1998 to assist foreign companies. Despite local efforts, foreign investors face the same problems in Yekaterinburg as they do elsewhere in Russia. Customs and tax issues top the list of problem areas.

Sverdlovsk Oblast leads the Urals in attracting foreign investment The top five foreign investors are the U.S., UK, Germany, China and Cyprus. About 70 foreign firms have opened representative offices in Yekaterinburg, including DHL, Ford, IBM, Proctor and Gamble, and Siemens. Lufthansa airlines has opened a station in Yekaterinburg and offers three flights per week to Frankfurt.

America is Sverdlovsk’s number one investor with $114 million in investment and 79 joint ventures. The three largest U.S. investors are Coca-Cola, Pepsi and USWest. Coca-Cola and Pepsi both opened bottling plants in Yekaterinburg in 1998. USWest has a joint venture, Uralwestcom, which is one of Yekaterinburg’s leading companies in cellular phone sales and service. America is Sverdlovsk Oblast’s number one trading partner. In 1998, Boeing signed a ten-year titanium supply contract valued at approximately $200 million with the VSMPO titanium plant. Besides the U.S., Sverdlovsk’s top trading partners include Holland, Kazakhstan, Germany and the UK.

Yekaterinburg, like most of Russia, has a continental climate. The city is located at the source of the Iset River and is surrounded by lakes and hills. Temperatures tend to be mild in summer and severe in winter. The average temperature in January is -15.5C (4F), but occasionally reaches -40C (-40F). The average temperature in July is 17.5C (64F), but occasionally reaches 40C (104F). Current weather in Yekaterinburg from  http://www.gismeteo.ru/ .

• Sverdlovsk Oblast Map
• Yekaterinburg Map

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What Is a Socratic Education?

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• Henry Curcio 2  

This chapter explores the controversial educational methods of the historic Socrates. It begins by highlighting the historic context within which Socrates’ educational methods emerged and emphasizes the ways his methods diverged from standard Athenian educational methods. Then, it clarifies the Socratic methodology employed by the Socrates of Plato’s dialogues with an emphasis placed on his elenchus . With this, the ways Socrates stands apart from educators of his time and the present become clear. Against those who take teaching to be a transfer of knowledge, Socrates suggests that teaching ought to not take this form. Instead, Socrates suggests education should involve one confronting their beliefs and scrutinizing them. Upon scrutinization, one can begin to obtain knowledge. At times this will appear painful, but this too seems to be a part of Socrates’ methodology.

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Curcio, H. (2024). What Is a Socratic Education?. In: Geier, B.A. (eds) The Palgrave Handbook of Educational Thinkers. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-25134-4_16

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Yekaterinburg

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Yekaterinburg , city and administrative center of Sverdlovsk oblast (region), west-central Russia . The city lies along the Iset River, which is a tributary of the Tobol River , and on the eastern slope of the Ural Mountains , slightly east of the border between Europe and Asia . Yekaterinburg is situated 1,036 miles (1,667 km) east of Moscow .

Near the village of Shartash, which was founded in 1672 by members of the Russian sect of Old Believers, an ironworks was established in 1721 and a fortress in 1722. In 1723 the new settlement was named Yekaterinburg in honor of Catherine I , the wife of Peter I the Great . The town grew as the administrative center for all the ironworks of the Urals region, and its importance increased after 1783, when the Great Siberian Highway was built through it. After 1878 the Trans-Siberian Railroad linked the city with Siberia. After the Russian Revolution of 1917 (October), Yekaterinburg achieved notoriety as the scene of the execution of the last tsar , Nicholas II , and his family in July 1918. In 1924 it was renamed Sverdlovsk in honor of the Bolshevik leader Yakov M. Sverdlov, but the city reverted to its original name in 1991.

Modern Yekaterinburg is one of the major industrial centers of Russia, especially for heavy engineering. The Uralmash produces heavy machinery and is the city’s largest enterprise; it once employed some 50,000 workers, though it now has a small fraction of that number. Engineering products manufactured in the city include metallurgical and chemical machinery, turbines, diesels, and ball bearings . During the Soviet period the city was a major center of biological and chemical warfare research and development . There is a range of light industries, including a traditional one of gem cutting. Food processing is also important. The city, laid out on a regular gridiron pattern, sprawls across the valley of the Iset—there dammed to form a series of small lakes—and the low surrounding hills.

Yekaterinburg is an important railway junction, with lines radiating from it to all parts of the Urals and the rest of Russia. The city is the leading cultural center of the Urals and has numerous institutions of higher education , including the Urals A.M. Gorky State University (founded 1920), a conservatory, and polytechnic, mining, forestry, agricultural, law, medical, and teacher-training institutes. The Urals branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences and many scientific-research establishments are also located there. Boris Yeltsin , the first democratically elected president of Russia, was educated and spent much of his political career in the city. Pop. (2005 est.) 1,304,251.