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Kondratiev, Long Cycles and Economic Conjuncture

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Vincent Barnett 2

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Kondratiev first mentioned the idea of long cycles in print in the mono-graph The World Economy and its Conjuncture During and After the War (Mirovoe khozyaistvo i ego kon”yunktury vo vremya i posle voiny) published in 1922, and an account of this pioneering presentation is given below. Kondratiev’s first paper devoted specifically to long cycles was published in Questions of Conjuncture (Voprosy kon”yunktury) in 1925, and a version of this paper was translated and published in The Review of Economic Statistics in 1935. On 6 February 1926 Kondratiev read an expanded and revised version of his account of long cycles in the Institute of Economics in Moscow. This was a grand affair as the paper was discussed and criticised by many eminent economists such as V.A. Bazarov, S.A. Pervushin and M.V. Ignatiev, and the meeting was chaired by S.A. Fal’kner. On 13 February 1926 D.I. Oparin presented his very detailed critique of Kondratiev’s analysis of long cycles, the most rigorous critique produced during NEP, and this encounter was the high-point of the debate on long cycles which occurred in the USSR in the 1920s. 1 An account of this meeting was published in book form in 1928, and Kondratiev and Oparin also published some aspects of their critical exchange in Planned Economy (Planovoe khozyaistva) in 1926. Many other theorists entered the fray against Kondratiev in this period, for example Trotsky attacked Kondratiev for arguing that the long cycle was strictly periodic in nature. 2 Finally in 1928 Kondratiev published a detailed application of long cycle analysis to the interrelation of international agricultural and industrial prices, which was in many ways the pièce de résistance of his output on long cycles, and this paper was the last which he wrote on long cycles. Thus the key years for Kondratiev long cycle publications were 1922, 1925, 1926 and 1928.

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Barnett, V. (1998). Kondratiev, Long Cycles and Economic Conjuncture . In: Kondratiev and the Dynamics of Economic Development. Studies in Russian and East European History and Society. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-26327-1_5

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An Examination of the Dynamics in the Moscow Exchange: Some Empirical Tests for Sectorial Market Efficiency

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Alexakis Cristos

Esc rennes school of business, tatiana ignatova.

Russian Presidential Academy of National Economy and Public Administration South-Russia Institute Of Management

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In the article the author argues that Moscow exchange stock market has wesk efficiency.

Keywords: Stock market, Moscow exchange, Efficiency

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Pesticide use, regulation, and policies in indian agriculture.

1. Introduction

2. objectives and methodology, 3.1. pesticide use in the world and in india, 3.2. pesticide consumption in india, 3.3. use of bio-pesticides, 3.4. use of integrated pest management (ipm).

Agro-ecological methods: These methods emphasize the integration of natural processes and biodiversity to sustainably manage pests. They include crop rotation, polyculture, and the use of natural predators to reduce pest populations. By fostering a diverse ecosystem, beneficial insects and organisms thrive, which naturally keeps pest numbers in check. Additionally, practices such as habitat management and using pest-resistant crop varieties minimize the need for chemical pesticides, promoting environmental health and reducing the risk of pest resistance.
Mechanical methods: These involve physical techniques and devices to manage and reduce pest populations, such as hand picking pests, using traps and barriers, and employing machinery like plows and cultivators to disrupt pest habitats. Techniques such as mulching and soil solarization can also create unfavorable conditions for pests. Mechanical control minimizes the use of chemical pesticides, thereby reducing environmental impact and health risks to humans and non-target species. These methods offer immediate and effective solutions, especially in smaller-scale or organic farming operations.
Biological methods: These involve using living organisms to suppress pest populations through natural predation, parasitism, and competition. They include introducing or conserving beneficial insects like ladybugs and predatory beetles, which feed on pests such as aphids and caterpillars, and using parasitic wasps that lay eggs inside pest larvae. Microbial agents like Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), a bacterium that produces toxins harmful to specific insects, provide targeted pest management. Biological control methods are sustainable and environmentally friendly, reducing reliance on chemical pesticides and fostering ecological balance in agricultural systems.
In Odisha, 100% of households adopted some type of pest control measures ( Table 4 ).
In Haryana, Punjab, and Gujarat, about 99% of farmers implemented pest control measures.
Andhra Pradesh had a 96% adoption rate, West Bengal 94%, and Jammu 93%.
Conversely, Uttarakhand had only 29% adoption, Uttar Pradesh 36%, and Jharkhand 58%.

3.5. Composition of Pesticide Production in India

3.6. pesticide production, imports, exports, and consumption in india, 3.7. trade in pesticides, 3.8. market share of different pesticide categories in india, 3.9. distribution of sales and reach to consumers.

Regions with high concentrations: Jammu and Kashmir has the highest concentration with 8.9 sales points per 1000 hectares, followed by Haryana (4.1), West Bengal (4.1), Himachal Pradesh (3.9), Punjab (3.6), and Uttar Pradesh (3.4).
Regions with low concentrations: Bihar has the lowest concentration with 0.6 sales points per 1000 hectares, followed by Jharkhand (0.9), Kerala (0.9), Madhya Pradesh (1.1), and Rajasthan (1.2).

4. Regulation, Registration, and Quality Control

4.1. labeling of pesticide products.

Labels must prominently feature a diamond-shaped square occupying at least one-sixteenth of the total label area.
The upper portion of the square must contain symbols and signal words indicating toxicity levels: (i). Category I (extremely toxic): Skull and crossbones symbol and “POISON” in red, with warnings “KEEP OUT OF THE REACH OF CHILDREN” and “IF SWALLOWED, OR IF SYMPTOMS OF POISONING OCCUR, CALL PHYSICIAN IMMEDIATELY”. (ii). Category II (highly toxic): “POISON” in red and “KEEP OUT OF THE REACH OF CHILDREN”. (iii). Category III (moderately toxic): “DANGER” and “KEEP OUT OF THE REACH OF CHILDREN”. (iv). Category IV (slightly toxic): “CAUTION”.

4.2. Pesticide Residues

4.2.1. vegetables, 4.2.2. fruits, 4.2.3. spices, 4.2.4. staple crops, 4.3. ban of pesticides, decision-making criteria, 4.4. bio-pesticides, 5. policy analysis, 5.1. pfa regulations on maximum residue levels (mrls), 5.2. regulations on use of pesticides, 6. conclusions and future prospects, author contributions, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

S. No.	Crop	Major Pests	Damage (%)	Yield Loss (%)	Yield (kg/ha)	Monetary Potential (Rs/ha)	Loss Avoidance Potential (Minimum) (Rs/ha)	Loss Avoidance Potential (Maximum) (Rs/ha)
1.	Paddy	Yellow stem borer, Scirpophaga incertulas	10–20	25–30	2404	52,479	13,120	15,744
		Brown plant hopper, Nilaparvata lugens	40–50	10–70	2404	52,479	5248	36,735
		Gall midge, Orseolia oryzae	15	70–85	2404	52,479	36,735	44,607
		Leaf folder, Cnaphalocrocis medinalis	1–30	40–57	2404	52,479	20,992	29,913
2.	Cotton	Leafhopper, Amrasca devastans	40–50	30–35	445	29,459	8838	10,311
		Whitefly, Bemisia tabaci	40	15–30	445	29,459	4419	8838
		Tobacco caterpillar, Spodoptera litura	30–40	30–40	445	29,459	8838	11,784
		Pink bollworm, Pectinophora gossypiella	20–80	20–95	445	29,459	5892	27,986
		Spotted and spiny bollworm, Earias vittella, E. insulana	30–40	30–40	445	29,459	8838	11,784
		American bollworm, Helicoverpa armigera	20–30	20–80	445	29,459	5892	23,567
3.	Sugarcane	Early shoot borer, Chilo infuscatellus	Medium	20–25	84,000	285,600	57,120	71,400
		Pink stem borer, Sesamia inferens	29.40	55–60	84,000	285,600	157,080	171,360
		Top shoot borer, Scirpophaga excerptalis	Medium	21–37	84,000	285,600	59,976	105,672
		Pyrilla, Pyrilla purpusilla	Medium	30–35	84,000	285,600	85,680	99,960
		Woolly aphid, Ceratovacuna lanigera	100	50–55	84,000	285,600	142,800	157,080
		Internode borer, Chilo sacchariphagus indicus	80	80–85	84,000	285,600	228,480	242,760
4.	Chili	Tobacco cut worm, Spodoptera litura	2–8	30–40	12,000	819,960	245,988	327,984
		Gram pod borer, Helicoverpa armigera	High	77–75	12,000	819,960	631,369	614,970
		Chili black thrips, Thrips parvispinus	high	50–80	12,000	819,960	409,980	655,968
		Whitefly, Bemisia tabaci	High	30–40	12,000	819,960	245,988	327,984
		Yellow mite, Polyphagotarsonemus latus	Medium to high	30–50	12,000	819,960	245,988	409,980

S. No.	Crop	Major Pests	Damage (%)	Yield Loss (%)	Yield (kg/ha)	Monetary Potential Yield (Rs/ha)	Loss Avoidance Potential (Minimum)	Loss Avoidance Potential (Maximum)
1.	Paddy	Blast, Pyricularia oryzae (Magnaporthe oryzae)	Low to high	70–80	2404	52,479	36,735	41,983
		Bacterial leaf blight, Xanthomonas oryae pv. oryzae	Low to high	50–80	2404	52,479	26,240	41,983
		Brown spot, Bipolaris oryzae	Low to high	26–52	2404	52,479	13,645	27,289
		Sheath blight, Rhizoctonia solani	Low to high	45–55	2404	52,479	23,616	28,863
		Sheath rot, Sarocladium oryzae	Low to high	5–80	2404	52,479	2624	41,983
2.	Cotton	Leaf curl, cotton leaf curl virus	100	85–95	445	29,459	25,040	27,986
		Angular leaf spot/BLB, Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. Malvacearum	26–55	5–35	445	29,459	1473	10,311
		Alternaria blight, Alternaria gossypina, A. alternata	24–40	26.60	445	29,459	5892	8838
		Myrothecium leaf spot, Myrothecium roridum	34	25–60	445	29,459	7365	17,675
3.	Sugarcane	Red rot, Colletotrichum falcatum	High in sub- tropical areas	50–100	84,000	285,600	142,800	2,85,600
		Smut, Sporisorium scitamineum	High in sub- tropical areas	25–50	84,000	285,600	71,400	142,800
		Wilt, Fusarium sacchari	High	15–20	84,000	285,600	42,840	57,120
		Grassy shoot disease, SCGS Phytoplasma	High	5–70	84,000	285,600	14,280	199,920
4.	Chili	Powdery mildew, Leveillula taurica	10–20	14–30	12,000	819,960	1,14,794	245,988
		Die back and fruit rot, Colletotrichum capsici	25–47	10–50	12,000	819,960	81,996	409,980
		Leaf curl, Begomovirus	High	50–100	12,000	819,960	409,980	819,960
		Alternaria leaf spot, Alternaria solani	High	50–100	12,000	819,960	409,980	819,960

S. No.	Crop	Yield Loss Potential (%)	Yield (kg/ha)	Monetary Potential Yield (Rs/ha)	Loss Avoidance Potential (Minimum)	Loss Avoidance Potential (Maximum)
1.	Rice	10–100	2404	2404	52,479	5248
3.	Sugarcane	25–50	84,000	84,000	285,600	71,400
4.	Cotton	40–60	445	445	29,459	11,784
5.	Chili	60–80	12,000	12,000	819,960	491,976

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Click here to enlarge figure

State	TE 2007	TE 2023	% Change
Uttar Pradesh	6980	11,690	67
Maharashtra	3140	11,077	253
Andhra Pradesh	1841	6715	265
Punjab	6162	5233	−15
Haryana	4560	4061	−11
West Bengal	4027	3527	−12
J&K	758	2607	244
Rajasthan	2068	2100	2
Karnataka	1733	1941	12
Tamil Nadu	2242	1879	−16
Gujarat	2757	1731	−37
Chhattisgarh	495	1718	247
Odisha	811	1249	54
Bihar	872	947	9
Jharkhand	74	687	833
Madhya Pradesh	831	648	−22
Kerala	492	540	10
Assam	167	449	170
Himachal Pradesh	301	269	−11
Uttarakhand	160	153	−4
All India	40,653	59,314	46

Land Size Category	Area Treated with Pesticides
Land Size Category	Irrigated Area (%)	Unirrigated Area (%)
Marginal (<1 ha)	37	39
Small (1–2 ha)	39	40
Semi-medium (2–4 ha)	39	38
Medium (4–10 ha)	39	31
Large (>10 ha)	42	24
All	39	36

State	Crops
State	Cotton	Onion	Pigeon Pea	Paddy	Moong	Soybean	Groundnut	Jowar	Maize	Sesame
Haryana	3316			6960
Andhra Pradesh	6194	6041	2662	6053	7840		1896	5687	5593	413
Punjab	6753			5841	8740				2200
Telangana	4801		3793	5248	1576	1782	3971		3500
Karnataka	3699	2366	2427	2399	891	1698	368	453	837
Madhya Pradesh	2315	1944	1070	2282		2519			2236	667
Tamil Nadu	3066	3021		2165	1349		813	169	2105
Kerala				2005			101
Chhattisgarh				1568
Himachal Pradesh				1216					212
Maharashtra	4478	5510	5235	1158	873	3026	297	15	1702
Gujarat	3703	4237	2282	1107	918	901	4177		843	2010
Odisha	1905		3	1026	113				892
Uttar Pradesh				972	93		156		174
West Bengal				972	110		3146			951
Bihar				167					8
Assam				24
Jharkhand
Rajasthan	3642	1115			422	2306	1414		194
	3988	3462	2496	2421	2084	2039	1634	1581	1577	1010

State	Households Adopting Pest Control Measures (%)	Chemical Control (%)	Agro-Economic and Cultural Practices (%)	Mechanical Control (%)	Biological Control (%)	Other (%)	No Efforts (%)
Telangana	92	88	14	15	6	0	8
West Bengal	94	83	1	2	2	11	6
Maharashtra	89	69	65	37	5	0	11
Andhra Pradesh	96	61	39	19	4	19	4
Haryana	99	58	8	31	2	17	1
Himachal	74	57	5	0	1	16	26
Punjab	99	56	31	31	0	0	1
Jammu	93	53	25	7	8	27	7
Tamil Nadu	90	46	41	9	0	23	10
Madhya Pradesh	74	41	9	1	3	25	26
Gujarat	99	30	83	26	1	10	1
Odisha	100	30	4	0	3	67	0
Bihar	79	29	4	2	1	45	21
Rajasthan	75	28	62	4	0	1	25
Jharkhand	58	28	21	1	1	13	42
Uttarakhand	29	28	0	0	0	1	70
Assam	66	24	15	8	3	20	34
Karnataka	69	22	19	5	2	32	31
Uttar Pradesh	36	18	0	0	7	12	64
Chhatisgarh	62	17	50	2	1	3	38
Kerala	25	3	9	1	1	12	75
India	72	39	24	9	3	18	28

Year	Production	Import	Total	Consumption	Export
2005–2006	82	19	101	40	91
2006–2007	85	28	113	42	108
2007–2008	80	29	109	44	96
2008–2009	85	18	104	44	185
2009–2010	82	22	104	42	126
2018–2019	217	117	333	60	461
2019–2020	192	107	298	62	452
2020–2021	255	157	412	62	533
2021–2022	298	134	432	63	648
2022–2023	258	134	392	52	630

	Country	Insecticide	Fungicide	Herbicide
Export	Brazil	50,327	58,046	19,545
	Bangladesh	6856	30,272	0
	Nigeria	4550	0	0
	Arab Emirates	0	16,072	0
	Argentina	0	0	7508
	USA	0	0	30,589
Import	China	13,834	5904	35,314
	Israel	1105	0	4665
	Japan	796	0	0
	Thailand	0	1813	0
	Belgium	0	1763	0
	USA	0	0	12,922

Insecticide	% Share	Fungicide	% Share	Weedicide	% Share
Chlorpyriphos	14	Sulfur	40	Glyphosate	15
Malathion	7	Mancozeb	22	2,4-D Amine salt	15
Quinalphos	6	Carbendazim	7	Pretilachlor	12
Cypermethrin	5	Propineb	3	Butachlor	10
Monocrotophos	5	Ziram	3	2,4-D Dichlorophenoxy	10
Fipronil	5	Copper oxychloride	3	Atrazine	9
Profenophos	5	Captan	3	Pendimethalin	5
Fenvalerate	5	Zineb	2	Isoproturon	4
Acephate	4	Dodine	2	Chlodinafop-propargyl	3
Dimethoate	4	Hexaconazole	2	Anilophos	3
Share of top 10	59		86		87

Rodenticide	% Share	Plant Growth Regulator	% Share	Bio-Pesticide	% Share
Zinc phosphide	35	Paclobutrazol	19	Pseudomonas fluorescens	16
Aluminum phosphide	33	Alpha naphthyl acetic acid	17	Tricoderma spp.	15
Methyl bromide	13	Validamycin	16	Neem-based insecticides	12
Bromadiolone	10	Triacontanol	15	Metarrhizium anisopliae	12
Ethylene dibromide	4	Chlormequat chloride	12	Tricoderma viride	12
Barium carbonate	1	Gibberellic acid	11	Metarhizium rileyi	11
EDCT mixture	1	Growth promoters	9	Beauveria bassiana	8
Coumachlor	1	Sodium paranitro phinolate	7	Verticillium lecanii	6
Warfarin	0			Azadirachin	5
				NPV (H)	4
Share of top 10	100		100		100

Classification of the Insecticides	Medium Lethal Dose by the Oral Route Acute Toxicity LD 50 mg/kg Body Weight of Test Animals	Medium Lethal Dose by the Dermal Route Dermal Toxicity LD 50 mg/kg Body Weight of Test Animals	Color of Identification Band on the Label
Column-1	Column-2	Column-3	Column-4
1. Extremely toxic	1–50	1–200	Bright red
2. Highly toxic	51–500	201–2000	Bright yellow
3. Moderately toxic	501–5000	2001–20,000	Bright blue
4. Slightly toxic	More than 5000	More than 20,000	Bright green

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Share and Cite

Reddy, A.A.; Reddy, M.; Mathur, V. Pesticide Use, Regulation, and Policies in Indian Agriculture. Sustainability 2024 , 16 , 7839. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16177839

Reddy AA, Reddy M, Mathur V. Pesticide Use, Regulation, and Policies in Indian Agriculture. Sustainability . 2024; 16(17):7839. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16177839

Reddy, A. Amarender, Meghana Reddy, and Vartika Mathur. 2024. "Pesticide Use, Regulation, and Policies in Indian Agriculture" Sustainability 16, no. 17: 7839. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16177839

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