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First published in 1952.This is Volume V of Mannheim's collected works. When Karl Mannheim died early in 1947 in his fifty-third year, he left a number of unpublished manuscripts in varying stages of completion. The present volume is the sequel to Freedom, Power, and Democratic Planning, which was published in 1950. It contains six essays which Mannheim wrote and published in German scientific magazines between 1923 and 1929: elaborations of one dominant theme, the Sociology of Knowledge, which at the same time represents one of Mannheim's main contributions to sociological theory.

Essays on the sociology of Knowledge

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The sociology of knowledge : an essay in aid of a deeper understanding of the history of ideas

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The “Problem of Generations” Revisited: Karl Mannheim and the Sociology of Knowledge in International Relations

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• David M. McCourt  

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K arl Mannheim is a ubiquitous reference in scholarly work on generations, yet the usefulness of his essay “The Problem of Generations” as a basis for social scientific research is highly contested. 2 For some, it is an “undervalued legacy,” one that demonstrates the importance of generations in social life and offers invaluable guidance to their proper conceptualization. 3 But for others, Mannheim fails to define the generation with any great precision. He thus conflates the impact of generations with age- and cohort-effects, 4 leaving underspecified the links between generations and other social factors, including class. 5 Political scientists have also shown that generational membership and generational shifts do not always predict political views with great accuracy, placing further doubt on the appropriateness of a generational account of political change. 6 As a result, while he is widely acknowledged as the father of generational analysis, Mannheim’s essay is frequently cited, but just as frequently ignored. 7

Thus far have I come and no further: the rest I leave to my successors. —Karl Mannheim , Man and Society in an Age of Reconstruction

1. I would like to thank Michael McQuarrie and Stephanie Lee Mudge of the University of California-Davis, for useful conversations on the themes of Karl Mannheim and Pierre Bourdieu, and to Jon Acuff and Brent Steele for their insightful comments on an earlier draft of this chapter.

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The Contemporary Generations in American Politics

Generational Justice, Generational Habitus and the ‘Problem’ of the Baby Boomers

Conclusion — The Problem of Generations Today

Karl Mannheim, “The Problem of Generations,” in Essays on the Sociology of Knowledge (London, Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1928/1952): pp. 276–320.

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and Schuman, H and J Scott “Generations and Collective Memories,” American Sociological Review 54, 3 (1989): 359–381.

C. Wright Mills, “Language and Logic,” in Power Politics and People: The Collected Essays of C. Wright Mills (New York: Oxford University Press, 1963), pp. 425–426.

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Ole Holsti, and James, N. Rosenau, “Does Where You Stand Depend on When You Were Born? The Impact of Generation on Post-Vietnam Foreign Policy Beliefs,” Public Opinion Quarterly 14, 1 (1980);

M. Rintala, “A Generation in Politics: A Definition,” The Review of Politics 25, 4 (1963): 509–510; and Michael Roskin, “From Pearl Harbour to Vietnam: Shifting Generational Paradigms and Foreign Policy,” Political Science Quarterly 89, 3: 567.

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Karl Mannheim, “The Problem of Generations,” Karl Mannheim, Ideology and Utopia (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1936);

Karl Mannheim, Conservativism: A Contribution to the Sociology of Knowledge (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1925/1986);

and Karl Mannheim, “Competition as a Cultural Phenomenon,” in Essays on the Sociology of Knowledge (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1928/1952), pp. 191–229.

D. I. Kettler and V. Meja, Karl Mannheim and the Crisis of Liberalism (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 1995), p. 26.

D. I. Kettler, V. Meja, and N. Stehr, Karl Mannheim (London: Tavistock, 1984), p. 34.

Karl Mannheim, 1952 [1921/2]) “On the Interpretation of ‘Weltanschauung,’” in Essays on the Sociology of Knowledge (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1921/1952), pp. 33–83.

A. P. Simonds, Karl Mannheim’s Sociology of Knowledge (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1978), p. 19.

Kettler and Meja, Karl Mannheim and the Crisis of Liberalism , p. 33. It is interesting to note here that Mannheim’s call for intellectuals to support cultural regeneration through their scholarly and practical activities stands in contrast to the views of Max Weber, which Weber outlined in his lecture “Science as a Vocation,” also given in 1918. Weber argued that while social scientists might study the causes of social movements, it is not the goal of science to assess the righteousness of their aims, much less participate in the role of the scholar, “Science as Vocation,” in Max Weber on Charisma and Institution Building , ed. Shmuel Eisenstadt (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1918/1968). Here then we see the distinction between what Jackson terms Weber’s “analyticist” anti-foundational sociological theorizing and Mannheim’s “reflexivist” move when it comes to the issue of the role of the intellectual (Patrick Thaddeus Jackson, The Conduct of Inquiry in International Relations: Philosophy of Science and Its Implications for the Study of World Politics [London: Routledge, 2010], pp. 142–152, 168–174). In short, Mannheim and Weber share the ideal of the noninterested scientific observer negotiating the ideal-material divide through idealtypification, which has recently prompted a revival of interest in Weber in IR circles. Yet from a Mannheimian perspective, it is important to note that this is not a natural occurrence, but an ideal to be strived for.

M. Corsten, “The Time of Generations,” Time and Society 8, 2 (1999): 253.

R. Morrow, “Mannheim and the Early Frankfurt School: The Weber Reception of Riva Traditions of Critical Sociology,” in The Barbarism of Reason: Max Weber and the Twilight of Enlightenment , ed. A Horowitz and T Maley (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1994).

N. Cutler, “Generational Succession as a Source of Foreign Policy Attitudes: A Cohort Analysis of American Opinion, 1946–1966,” Journal of Peace Research 7, 1 (1970): 33–47; Cutler and Bengston, “Generational Succession as a Source of Foreign Policy Attitudes;” and Holsti and Rosenau, “Does Where You Stand Depend on When You Were Born?”.

H-H Kögler, “Alienation as Epistemological Source: Reflexivity and Social Background after Mannheim and Bourdieu,” Social Epistemology 11, 2 (1997): 141–164.

D. Breslau, “Is the Sociology of Knowledge Unethical?” Social Epistemology 11, 2 (1997): 217–222.

R. Bernstein, Beyond Objectivism and Relativism: Science, Hermeneutics, and Praxis (Oxford: Blackwell, 1984).

Thomas Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1962).

For two different elaborations of this key point, see Pierre Bourdieu, Homo Academicus . (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1988);

and Pierre Bourdieu, The Political Ontology of Martin Heidegger (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1991).

Friedrich, V. Kratochwil, Rules, Norms, and Decisions: On the Conditions of Practical and Legal Reasoning in International Affairs (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989).

Karin Fierke, Changing Games, Changing Strategies: Critical Investigations in Security (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1998).

See Pierre Bourdieu, and L. Wacquant, An Invitation to Reflexive Sociology (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1992);

and J L Martin, “What is Field Theory?” American Journal of Sociology 109, (2003): 1–49.

Pierre Bourdieu, The Field of Cultural Production (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993), p. 65.

Karl Mannheim, Man and Society in an Age of Reconstruction (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1940), pp. 13–14.

Nicholas Guilhot, “The Realist Gambit: Postwar American Political Science and the Birth of IR Theory,” International Political Sociology 2 (2008):. 281–304.

L. Ashworth, “Did the Realist-Idealist Great Debate Really Happen?” International Relations 16, 1 (2002): 33–51.

Edward Hallett Carr, The Twenty Years’ Crisis (Houndmills, UK: Palgrave, 1939/2001), pp. 15–41.

Ashworth, “Did the Realist-Idealist Great Debate Really Happen?” and P. Wilson, “The Myth of the ‘First Great Debate,’” Review of International Studies 24, 5 (1998): 1–16.

D. Rice, “Reinhold Niebuhr, and Hans Morgenthau: A Friendship with Contrasting Shades of Realism,” Journal of American Studies 42 (2008): 255–291.

On Neibuhr, see R W Fox, Reinhold Niebuhr: A Biography (New York: Harper and Row, 1987).

Stanley Hoffmann, “An American Social Science: International Relations,” Daedalus 106, 3 (1977): 41–60.

B. C. Schmidt, The Political Discourse of Anarchy: A Disciplinary History of International Relations (Albany, NY: SUNY Press, 1998).

E. Hauptmann, “From Opposition to Accommodation: How Rockefeller Foundation Grants Redefined Relations between Political Theory and Social Science” (2006)

and I Parmar, “To Relate Knowledge and Action’: The Impact of the Rockefeller Foundation on Foreign Policy Thinking During America’s Rise to Globalism 1939–1945,” Minerva , 40 (2002), 235–263.

Kenneth, W. Thompson, Political Realism and the Crisis of World Politics (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1960).

Campbell Craig, Glimmer of a New Leviathan: Total War in the Realism of Niebuhr, Morgenthau, and Waltz (New York: Columbia University Press, 2003);

and Keith Shimko, “Realism, Neorealism, and American Liberalism,” The Review of Politics 54, 2 (1992): 281–301.

See Michael Williams, The Realist Tradition and the Limits of International Relations (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005).

Pierre Bourdieu, Science of Science and Reflexivity (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2004), p. 19.

Carr, The Twenty Years’ Crisis , 177–83 and Cox 2001: xix) Michael Cox, “Introduction,” in Edward Hallett Carr, The Twenty Years’ Crisis (Houndmills: Palgrave, 2001), xix.

C. Jones, “Carr, Mannheim, and a Post-positivist Science of International Relations,” Political Studies 45 (1997): 236.

W. E. Scheuerman, Morgenthau (Cambridge: Polity, 2009), 201, cf. 8.

Cameron, G. Thies, “Progress, History and Identity in International Relations Theory: The Case of the Idealist-Realist Debate,” European Journal of International Relations 8, 2 (2002): 147–186; Schmidt, The Political Discourse of Anarchy ; and Wilson, “The Myth of the First ‘Great Debate.’”

Daniel Nexon, The Struggle for Power in Early Modern Europe: Religious Conflict, Dynastic Empires, and International Change (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2009);

and V Pouliot, International Security in Practice: The Politics of NATO-Russia Diplomacy (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010).

G. Lawson, and R. Shilliam, “Sociology and International Relations: Legacies and Prospects,” Cambridge Review of International Affairs 23, 1 (2010): 69–86.

Steele, B. “Evesdropping on Honored Ghosts’: From Classical to Reflexive Realism,” Journal of International Relations and Development 10, 3 (2007): 272–300;

and Michael C. Willliams, ed. Realism Reconsidered: The Legacy of Hans J. Morgenthau in International Relations (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007).

For example Guilhot, “The Realist Gambit” and N. Guilhot, “American Katechon: When Political Theology Became International Relations Theory,” Constellations 17, 2 (2010): 224–253.

Daniel Philpott, Revolutions in Sovereignty (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001);

and Michael Williams, “Why Ideas Matter in International Relations: Hans Morgenthau, Classical Realism and the Moral Construction of Power Politics,” International Organization 58 (2004): 633–665.

See J. E. Curtis, and J. W. Petras, eds. The Sociology of Knowledge: A Reader (New York: Praeger, 1970);

and Ann Swidler and G Arditi, “The New Sociology of Knowledge,” Annual Review of Sociology 20 (1994): 305–329.

Patrick Thaddeus Jackson, The Conduct of Inquiry in International Relations: Philosophy of Science and Its Implications for the Study of World Politics (London: Routledge, 2010), pp. 201–207.

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McCourt, D.M. (2012). The “Problem of Generations” Revisited: Karl Mannheim and the Sociology of Knowledge in International Relations. In: Steele, B.J., Acuff, J.M. (eds) Theory and Application of the “Generation” in International Relations and Politics. Palgrave Macmillan, New York. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137011565_3

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Essays on the sociology of knowledge . by karl mannheim. edited by paul kecskemeti. (london: routledge and kegan paul. 1952. price 25s.).

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• Volume 28, Issue 106
• Barbara Wootton
• DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S003181910005960X

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Knowledge, Sociology of

2016, Blackwell Encyclopedia of Sociology, edit Geo Ritzer

The sociology of knowledge examines the social and group origin of ideas, arguing that the entire "ideational realm" (ideas, ideologies, mentalities) develops within the context of a society's groups and institutions. Its ideas address broad sociological questions about the extent and limits of social and group influence through an examination of the social and cultural foundations of cognition and perception. Despite significant changes over time, classical and contemporary studies in the sociology of knowledge share a common theme: the social foundations of thought. Ideas, concepts, belief systems, and entire worldviews share an intrinsic sociality explained by the social contexts in which they emerge. From its origins in German sociology in the 1920s, the sociology of knowledge has assumed that ideas (knowledge) emerge out of and are determined by the social contexts and positions (structural locations) of their proponents. Its major premise is that the entire ideational realm is functionally related to sociohistorical reality. According to its framers, Wissenssoziologie was developed as an empirical and historical method for resolving the conflicts of ideologies in Weimar Germany that followed the political and social revolutions of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, conflicts grounded in competing worldviews (Weltanschauungen) and directed by intellectual and political elites. Outlined in early statements by Max Scheler and Karl Mannheim, the new discipline reflected the intellectual needs of an era, to bring both ratio-nality and objectivity to bear on the problems of intellectual and ideological confusion. It was in this sense that the sociology of knowledge has been described as a discipline that reflected a new way of understanding "knowledge" within a modern and ideologically pluralistic setting. The approach defines a new "situation."

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An analytical study of knowledge ought to acknowledge that the word “knowledge” is significantly ambiguous—as are its equivalents in other languages, such as the Greek Epistêmê, from which “epistemology” is derived. Knowledge evolves. Knowledge defined as a "structure of ideas" [Feibleman 1976], can be divided into two types. First is the familiar "knowledge-at-hand" [Schutz 1967] in everyday use. Second is theoretical, abstract knowledge, somewhat more remote from one's daily experience. We refer to the first type as "tacit knowledge" [Polanyi 1966]; the second is "abstract knowledge." So far we may understand it as accumulated external and explicit information belonging to the community, being leveraged by tacit intrinsic insights which originate within individuals who then may act alone or cooperatively in order to control or integrate with their environment.

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This article is a selective introduction to the description and characterization of the changes that have occurred in the sociology of knowledge since the publication of Max Scheler’s book in 1924 to contemporary times, most often conceptualized by the term knowledge society. A brief review of the main threads in the field of sociology of knowledge was intended to draw attention to the theoretical and practical advantages of particular approaches, as well as their disadvantages, resulting in a trivial study of the phenomenon of knowledge in question. The descriptive character of this article also allowed for a number of systematizations within specific approaches (e.g. Michel Foucault) and within a broad perspective of the knowledge phenomenon.

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Link: https://www.psychiatrictimes.com/view/terms-of-the-social-ii-the-sociology-of-knowledge The focus of this column is on Mannheim’s sociology of knowledge with a digression into Bernstein’s sociolinguistics. The two words we should retain from these reflections for an eventual, comprehensive theory of the social are: class and context.

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Suffering without remedy: the medically unexplained symptoms of fibromyalgia syndrome and long covid.

1. Introduction

Situating fibromyalgia syndrome & long covid, 2. diagnostic categories and illness experiences, 2.1. fibromyalgia syndrome as diagnosis, 2.2. fms as illness experience, 2.3. long covid as diagnosis.

• Post-COVID-19 Condition, The World Health Organization: Post-COVID-19 condition occurs in individuals with a history of probable or confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection, usually 3 months from the onset of COVID-19with symptoms that last for at least 2 months and cannot be explained by an alternative diagnosis. (Source: https://www.who.int/europe/news-room/fact-sheets/item/post-covid-19-condition Accessed on 1 August 2024)
• Post-COVID-19 Syndrome, The United Kingdom National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE): Signs and symptoms that develop during or after an infection consistent with COVID-19, continue for more than 12 weeks and are not explained by an alternative diagnosis. (Source: https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng188/chapter/1-Identification#case-definition Accessed on 1 August 2024)
• Post-COVID Conditions, The United States Centers for Disease Control: An infection-associated chronic condition that can occur after SARS-CoV-2 infection, the virus that causes COVID-19, and is present for at least 3 months as a continuous, relapsing and remitting, or progressive disease state that affects one or more organ system. (Source: https://www.cdc.gov/covid/long-term-effects/?CDC_AAref_Val = https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/long-term-effects/ Accessed on 1 August 2024)
• Post-Acute Sequelae of SARS-CoV-2 Infections, United States National Institutes of Health: Long-term effects of COVID may be different for everyone and they can affect many different parts of the body, such as the brain, heart, and lungs. And people who have PASC, including Long COVID, can have different kinds of effects. These effects may come and go, and they may last for a few weeks, a few months, or longer. (Source: https://recovercovid.org/long-covid Accessed on 1 August 2024)

2.4. Long COVID as Illness Experience

3. feminization-medicalization and suffering without remedy, author contributions, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

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Share and Cite

Moretti, C.; Barker, K.K. Suffering without Remedy: The Medically Unexplained Symptoms of Fibromyalgia Syndrome and Long COVID. Soc. Sci. 2024 , 13 , 450. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci13090450

Moretti C, Barker KK. Suffering without Remedy: The Medically Unexplained Symptoms of Fibromyalgia Syndrome and Long COVID. Social Sciences . 2024; 13(9):450. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci13090450

Moretti, Chiara, and Kristin Kay Barker. 2024. "Suffering without Remedy: The Medically Unexplained Symptoms of Fibromyalgia Syndrome and Long COVID" Social Sciences 13, no. 9: 450. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci13090450

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