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Case Study: The Amazon Rainforest

The Amazon in context

Tropical rainforests are often considered to be the “cradles of biodiversity.” Though they cover only about 6% of the Earth’s land surface, they are home to over 50% of global biodiversity. Rainforests also take in massive amounts of carbon dioxide and release oxygen through photosynthesis, which has also given them the nickname “lungs of the planet.” They also store very large amounts of carbon, and so cutting and burning their biomass contributes to global climate change. Many modern medicines are derived from rainforest plants, and several very important food crops originated in the rainforest, including bananas, mangos, chocolate, coffee, and sugar cane.

In order to qualify as a tropical rainforest, an area must receive over 250 centimeters of rainfall each year and have an average temperature above 24 degrees centigrade, as well as never experience frosts. The Amazon rainforest in South America is the largest in the world. The second largest is the Congo in central Africa, and other important rainforests can be found in Central America, the Caribbean, and Southeast Asia. Brazil contains about 40% of the world’s remaining tropical rainforest. Its rainforest covers an area of land about 2/3 the size of the continental United States.

There are countless reasons, both anthropocentric and ecocentric, to value rainforests. But they are one of the most threatened types of ecosystems in the world today. It’s somewhat difficult to estimate how quickly rainforests are being cut down, but estimates range from between 50,000 and 170,000 square kilometers per year. Even the most conservative estimates project that if we keep cutting down rainforests as we are today, within about 100 years there will be none left.

How does a rainforest work?

Rainforests are incredibly complex ecosystems, but understanding a few basics about their ecology will help us understand why clear-cutting and fragmentation are such destructive activities for rainforest biodiversity.

High biodiversity in tropical rainforests means that the interrelationships between organisms are very complex. A single tree may house more than 40 different ant species, each of which has a different ecological function and may alter the habitat in distinct and important ways. Ecologists debate about whether systems that have high biodiversity are stable and resilient, like a spider web composed of many strong individual strands, or fragile, like a house of cards. Both metaphors are likely appropriate in some cases. One thing we can be certain of is that it is very difficult in a rainforest system, as in most other ecosystems, to affect just one type of organism. Also, clear cutting one small area may damage hundreds or thousands of established species interactions that reach beyond the cleared area.

Pollination is a challenge for rainforest trees because there are so many different species, unlike forests in the temperate regions that are often dominated by less than a dozen tree species. One solution is for individual trees to grow close together, making pollination simpler, but this can make that species vulnerable to extinction if the one area where it lives is clear cut. Another strategy is to develop a mutualistic relationship with a long-distance pollinator, like a specific bee or hummingbird species. These pollinators develop mental maps of where each tree of a particular species is located and then travel between them on a sort of “trap-line” that allows trees to pollinate each other. One problem is that if a forest is fragmented then these trap-line connections can be disrupted, and so trees can fail to be pollinated and reproduce even if they haven’t been cut.

The quality of rainforest soils is perhaps the most surprising aspect of their ecology. We might expect a lush rainforest to grow from incredibly rich, fertile soils, but actually, the opposite is true. While some rainforest soils that are derived from volcanic ash or from river deposits can be quite fertile, generally rainforest soils are very poor in nutrients and organic matter. Rainforests hold most of their nutrients in their live vegetation, not in the soil. Their soils do not maintain nutrients very well either, which means that existing nutrients quickly “leech” out, being carried away by water as it percolates through the soil. Also, soils in rainforests tend to be acidic, which means that it’s difficult for plants to access even the few existing nutrients. The section on slash and burn agriculture in the previous module describes some of the challenges that farmers face when they attempt to grow crops on tropical rainforest soils, but perhaps the most important lesson is that once a rainforest is cut down and cleared away, very little fertility is left to help a forest regrow.

What is driving deforestation in the Amazon?

Many factors contribute to tropical deforestation, but consider this typical set of circumstances and processes that result in rapid and unsustainable rates of deforestation. This story fits well with the historical experience of Brazil and other countries with territory in the Amazon Basin.

Population growth and poverty encourage poor farmers to clear new areas of rainforest, and their efforts are further exacerbated by government policies that permit landless peasants to establish legal title to land that they have cleared.

At the same time, international lending institutions like the World Bank provide money to the national government for large-scale projects like mining, construction of dams, new roads, and other infrastructure that directly reduces the forest or makes it easier for farmers to access new areas to clear.

The activities most often encouraging new road development are timber harvesting and mining. Loggers cut out the best timber for domestic use or export, and in the process knock over many other less valuable trees. Those trees are eventually cleared and used for wood pulp, or burned, and the area is converted into cattle pastures. After a few years, the vegetation is sufficiently degraded to make it not profitable to raise cattle, and the land is sold to poor farmers seeking out a subsistence living.

Regardless of how poor farmers get their land, they often are only able to gain a few years of decent crop yields before the poor quality of the soil overwhelms their efforts, and then they are forced to move on to another plot of land. Small-scale farmers also hunt for meat in the remaining fragmented forest areas, which reduces the biodiversity in those areas as well.

Another important factor not mentioned in the scenario above is the clearing of rainforest for industrial agriculture plantations of bananas, pineapples, and sugar cane. These crops are primarily grown for export, and so an additional driver to consider is consumer demand for these crops in countries like the United States.

These cycles of land use, which are driven by poverty and population growth as well as government policies, have led to the rapid loss of tropical rainforests. What is lost in many cases is not simply biodiversity, but also valuable renewable resources that could sustain many generations of humans to come. Efforts to protect rainforests and other areas of high biodiversity is the topic of the next section.

Case Studies in Geography Education as a Powerful Way of Teaching Geography

First Online: 20 October 2016

Cite this chapter

Eduard Hofmann 5 &
Hana Svobodová 5

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A case study presents an appropriate form and method of providing students with a solution of real situations from the surroundings in which they live. This is called “powerful teaching”, and it is designed to help pupils and students to be able to cope with the rigours of everyday life through geography education. This method is not so well known and used in Czechia as abroad, where it is known under the name “powerful knowledge” or “powerful teaching”. For this reason the introductory part of this chapter devotes enough space to understand “powerful learning” and noted how it differs from inquiry-based, project-based, problem-based, student-centred and constructivist approaches to learning. Knowledge from the Czech geography education is in our case used for solving a case study in a decisive process in which students solve options and consequences of the construction of a ski resort in Brno (in Czechia). They submit their conclusions to the municipal council for assessment.

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Learning About LERN (Land and EnviRonment Nexus): A Case Study of Effective Pedagogy for Out-Of-Classroom Teaching

A Freirean Approach to Epistemic Justice: Contributions of Action Learning to Capabilities for Epistemic Liberation

A Call to View Disciplinary Knowledge Through the Lens of Geography Teachers’ Professional Practice

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Faculty of Education, Department of Geography, Masaryk University in Brno, Poříčí 7, 603 00, Brno, Czech Republic

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Faculty of Education Department of Geography, University of South Bohemia in České Budějovice, České Budějovice, Czech Republic

Petra Karvánková

Dagmar Popjaková

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Jozef Mládek



















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Connects all the thematic units referred to in the introduction to the table		Mathematics, physics, civics, history

Basic map 1:10 000 aerial photograph, cadastral map, plan for the city of Brno, GPS station or mobile phone, tablet, camera, pens, crayons, tape measure and pedometer		Classical classroom, specialised classroom (computer, access to the Internet) and field

It is designed in the framework of group lessons. Groups are differentiated – boys together with girls – in the group of students with excellent academic performance, and poorer are represented


This part is completed according to the schedule of the completed study in the bachelor’s degree study

Primarily, the active approach to tasks and the quality of output materials for the final report are evaluated

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Hofmann, E., Svobodová, H. (2017). Case Studies in Geography Education as a Powerful Way of Teaching Geography. In: Karvánková, P., Popjaková, D., Vančura, M., Mládek, J. (eds) Current Topics in Czech and Central European Geography Education. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-43614-2_7

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A Level Geography Case Studies: contemporary examples

Give strength to your answers with case studies.

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Use the ‘Topics’ menu at the top of every page to navigate to detailed explanations of IBDP Geography units such as Urban Environments, Global Climate Change, Leisure Tourism and Sport and more, with a full references list and questions at the bottom of the page to test student understanding. Teachers can use the ideas in the ‘Other tasks’ section of each page as the main lesson activity.

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Marine Critical Issues: Case Studies

Students use case studies to examine human impacts on marine ecosystems. They evaluate case studies in terms of an area's history, geography, habitats, species, stakeholders, human uses and impacts, and management goals.

Oceanography, Earth Science, Biology, Ecology, Geography, Human Geography, Physical Geography

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Humans are having a negative impact on marine ecosystems due to pollution, overfishing, habitat destruction, and other unsustainable practices. Analyzing case studies of human impacts on marine ecosystems helps students to understand the critical issues facing the world's oceans today, as well as the positive effects that the establishment of marine protected areas can have on the health of the ocean.

Informal Assessment

Assess students based on their responses to the discussion questions and the completeness and accuracy of their worksheets.

Extending the Learning

Using their worksheet Marine Ecosystem Critical Issues: Case Studies as a guide, have students research, create, and present a case study for a local aquatic or terrestrial protected area.

Prior Knowledge

Marine ecosystems, interrelationships, and human impacts

One of the islands in the Galápagos archipelago.

1. Activate students’ prior knowledge and build background.

Remind students that Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) are areas of the marine environment that are protected by laws in order to preserve their natural and cultural resources. In order to establish and manage MPAs, case studies are created. Ask: What are case studies? Elicit from students that case studies outline important information about an area’s history, geography, habitats, species, human uses, and management goals. Case studies also describe threats to the area and explain why the area should be protected. The goals of such protection focus on restoring ecological balance to the area. Case studies help stakeholders understand how humans impact the area and what can be done to restore ecological balance and sustainably manage the area’s cultural and natural resources. Ask: Who are stakeholders? Remind students that stakeholders are people, organizations, or political entities interested in and/or affected by the outcome of management decisions.

2. Use Apo Island as an example case study of human impacts on a marine ecosystem.

Distribute the Marine Ecosystem Critical Issues: Case Studies worksheet and read aloud the directions. Review the categories of information in the chart, making sure that students know what components of the case study they need to record. Explain that for Case Study #1: Apo Island, they will view a video and work together as a class to complete the chart. For Case Study #2: Galápagos Marine Reserve, they will review a written case study and work in small groups to complete the chart. Show students the video, “EcoTipping Point Success Stories: Apo Island” (6 minutes, 30 seconds) and have them take notes on their worksheets as they watch. After the video, discuss the information students recorded. Ask:

What happened as a result of Apo Islanders changing their fishing practices and establishing an MPA?
What do you think would have happened if they did not establish the MPA or change the way they used their island’s ocean resources?

3. View the National Geographic video “Galápagos” to build background.

Tell students that they will watch a short video (4 minutes, 30 seconds) to learn about the Galápagos Islands and the establishment of the Galápagos Marine Reserve. As they watch, focus their attention by telling them to look for examples of the case study information they will record in their charts. Tell them to think about the human impacts that threatened the habitat and organisms of the Galápagos and eventually led to the establishment of the MPA.

4. Review the Galápagos Marine Reserve Case Study.

After viewing the video, divide students into small groups and distribute copies of the handout Galápagos Marine Reserve Case Study. Have students read through the case study and complete the charts on their worksheets. Have groups share the information they recorded for each of the case study components in their charts. Next, ask students to brainstorm the human impacts (threats) that led to the creation of the Galápagos Marine Reserve as a MPA. Ask: Why did the Galápagos MPA need to be protected? List student responses on the board. Then ask students to recall the human impacts that led to the creation of Apo Island’s MPA. Draw a circle around the impacts that are the same as those threatening the Galápagos. Underline impacts that are different from those threatening the Galápagos. Lead a discussion about the similarities and differences between the two case studies, including the human impacts that threaten the balance and sustainability of their marine ecosystems.

5. Have students reflect on what they have learned.

Based on the two case studies, what was done to address human-induced threats and restore balance in the marine ecosystems?
Do you think more could or should be done to protect the habitat and organisms of the Galápagos and Apo Island? Why or why not?
If the establishment of a MPA results in so many positive changes that benefit the people and the ocean, why are there not more MPAs throughout the world?

A young Galápagos sea lion (Zalophus wollebaeki) rests on a fallen mangrove trunk in a mangrove lagoon at Fernandina Islands. Young individuals enjoy safe refuge in the mangroves from predators.

Learning Objectives

Students will:

identify and describe human impacts to marine ecosystems
summarize case study information, including the history, geography, habitats, species, human uses, stakeholders, and management goals for different MPAs
discuss human actions that can be taken to restore balance to threatened marine ecosystems and species

Teaching Approach

Learning-for-use

Teaching Methods

Discussions

Skills Summary

This activity targets the following skills:

Information, Communications, and Technology Literacy
Communication and Collaboration
Understanding
Acquiring Geographic Information
Organizing Geographic Information

Connections to National Standards, Principles, and Practices

National Geography Standards

Standard 14 : How human actions modify the physical environment
Standard 8 : The characteristics and spatial distribution of ecosystems and biomes on Earth's surface

National Science Education Standards

(9-12) Standard F-3 : Natural resources
(9-12) Standard F-4 : Environmental quality
(9-12) Standard F-5 : Natural and human-induced hazards

Ocean Literacy Essential Principles and Fundamental Concepts

Principle 6e : Humans affect the ocean in a variety of ways. Laws, regulations and resource management affect what is taken out and put into the ocean. Human development and activity leads to pollution (such as point source, non-point source, and noise pollution) and physical modifications (such as changes to beaches, shores and rivers). In addition, humans have removed most of the large vertebrates from the ocean.
Principle 6g : Everyone is responsible for caring for the ocean. The ocean sustains life on Earth and humans must live in ways that sustain the ocean. Individual and collective actions are needed to effectively manage ocean resources for all.

Preparation

What you’ll need.

Materials You Provide

Required Technology

Internet Access: Required
Tech Setup: 1 computer per classroom, Projector, Speakers
Plug-Ins: Flash

Physical Space

Large-group instruction
Small-group instruction

Other Notes

Before starting the activity, download and queue up the videos.

Media Credits

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Expert reviewers.

Special thanks to the educators who participated in National Geographic's 2010-2011 National Teacher Leadership Academy (NTLA), for testing activities in their classrooms and informing the content for all of the Ocean: Marine Ecology, Human Impacts, and Conservation resources.

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Case studies are specific examples of how GIS was used to solve a problem or made information sharing easier in a particular industry. The Library has a collection of books which illustrate a number of case studies. These case studies can also provide you with inspiration for your own GIS projects. This is not the complete list of case studies available, but those listed should help you with ideas.

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Getting the best case studies for Geography

It can be a bit overwhelming when it comes to case studies and it’s all too easy to bury your head in the sand and go with the ones in the textbook. This guide will help you develop quality case studies in no time at all.

Step 1: Check the syllabus

“Which topics do I need case studies for?” “How many do I need?” “What kind of information do I need?” Don’t panic! The syllabus/specification answers all of these questions. Make a list of what you need and move on to the next step.

Step 2: Use Key Materials

Before you start wildly Googling Colombian micro-climates, take a step back. Go on to the exam board website and have a browse through practice exam papers, mark schemes, exemplar answers and examiners’ reports. Practice papers and mark schemes will show you which type of questions require case studies, and what type of information you should be looking for. They’ll also help you to identify those dreaded ‘curveball’ questions everyone talks about after the exam. The examiners’ reports for geography are brilliant. They explicitly tell you which case studies top students used and how they applied the information to answer each question.

Step 3: Brainstorm

This step will save you heaps of time in the long run. Although the syllabus lays out everything you need to know, it’s not all that detailed. For example, the AQA syllabus states: Two case studies of recent (ideally within the last 30 years) seismic events should be undertaken from contrasting areas of the world. In each case, the following should be examined:

the nature of the seismic hazard;
the impact of the event;
management of the hazard and responses to the event.

So what you’d do here is take those three bullet points and expand on them. Mark schemes will give you a rough idea of what the examiners are looking for. Break the bullet points down and create a mindmap (like the one below) or write a list. You now know, point by point, exactly what to search for.

Step 4: Use your Textbooks/Revision Guides

This is just a starting point. If you decide to go with a case study that’s in a textbook or revision guide, that’s ok. But be aware that even the 5-page-long case studies in textbooks won’t contain information on all those points you wrote down. Not only that, but pretty much every other student in the country is going to be using that exact case study. Boring! You need to make sure you can stand out from the crowd.

Step 5: Research

This is the big one. Where possible, find case studies so recent that they can’t be in the textbook. It takes the same amount of time to compile a recent and interesting case study as it does to copy one out of the textbook. It’s also a lot less boring and will get you a ton of marks!

Google is your best friend here. Try and get information from reputable sources (in other words, Wikipedia’s a no go). Find news articles and government websites for facts and figures, and take a look at Google Scholar for opinions; Google Scholar is exactly what you’d think it is – Google for Scholars. Search for ‘scholar’ on Google, then tap in some key words and you’ll find some golden material for your case studies: Quotes from experts.

Work through your mindmap or list in order. When you find information on one of the points, take some notes and tick it off.

Step 6: Go A Little Bit Further

Make sure you have a few smaller case studies in addition to your main ones. I’m not saying you’ll need 20 case studies per topic. Just have a few little facts and examples in your arsenal that you could use to compare and contrast with your main case studies in an essay question. It shows the examiner that you’ve gone the extra mile and have a deeper understanding of the subject.

When you’ve finished, you’ll have a set of totally unique case studies and enough information to ensure that no question catches you off guard.

Step 7: Memorise

Remember that mindmap from earlier? That’s your structure. Add the facts, figures and quotes as new branches and you’re half way there. Give it to one of your mates and talk them through it whilst drawing your mindmap on a whiteboard. You’ll have it memorised in no time.

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How to revise geography case studies

Molly, one of my readers, wrote to me to ask:

I was just wondering if you had any tips for revising and remembering geography case studies?

When I've asked around some of the things that students find most difficult about revising geography case studies are:

Condensing all the information
Remembering all the statistics
Knowing what you need to know, and what you can afford to forget

Having been a bit of an ace at this kind of thing myself (I got an A* at GCSE, A at A-Level and a degree in the subject) I thought I'd share some of my top tips on how to revise geography case studies today.

1. Make sure you understand the case study

The first step in remembering anything is understanding it. You need to have a clear model in your mind of how the case study works. This includes how it's laid out in space (a mental map), who the people were who were involved and the context of the case study (historical, political, social, economic and environmental. These tips will help you with this:

Make sure you've seen a map of the place. In this day and age this is easy with google maps, google earth and google streetview. All of these things can help you understand both the 2-D and 3-D landscape of the case study.
Find newspaper articles and pictures to give you some background and also help you to visual the place
Watch videos if they exist. For some case studies there are amazing clips of films (Kibera, the Nairobi shanty town at the beginning of The Constant Gardner springs to mind). For others there will be great video clips on YouTube to help you.
If you can, visit the place. Nothing is as powerful as this in fully understanding a place.

2. Condense your notes

Once you've thoroughly understood the case study it's time to condense your notes. There are various ways you can do this.

Create an A3 annotated map of the area. Colour code things like causes and effects or social, economic, environmental and political factors. Have a key. You can even have flaps. Stick the map up on the wall and look at it frequently. The great thing about this is that the finite size of the page forces you to condense the information.
Create a table. You could put things like the social, economic, political and environmental factors along one side and background, causes and effects along the other. Inside The Extraordinaries Club I have some grids and guidelines for you to download and use. These are exclusively for members. Find out more about the club here .
Create index cards. This was one of my favourites as it was quite a kinaesthetic way of separating the information into bite-sized chunks. It was a great format to give other people to test me so that I could learn all those facts and figures. You can even have different coloured index cards for different topics.
Traditional revision notes . In my opinion this is a bit boring, and can also be a bit intimidating when you see reams of notes that you have to memorise. I'd go with one of the other options if I was you.

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3. Memorise

Now you've condensed your class notes you need to memorise them. Good memorisation, in my experience comes down to two things:

Using the information in different formats.

I'd advise you to do a combination of the following:

Read index cards out loud, cover and test yourself.
Get other people to test you.
Act it out.
Make up songs or rhymes
Whatever else works for you…

4. Teach someone else about the case study

Teaching someone else is one of the best ways there is to a) check your understanding (because they'll never understand it if you don't) and b) practice putting what you know into words so that someone else understands it.

5. Do Past Papers

The final step is to do past papers. I strongly recommend that you do this in the format of Revision Power Hours.

If you do power hours, and make a point of marking your work, you'll not only do lots of repetition of the case study you've been learning, you'll start to learn to think like an examiner and also get a brilliant insight into exactly what they expect you to know in terms of facts and statistics.

I will say this. I used to remember literally hundreds of stats for my case studies. When I became a teacher it surprised me how few students actually needed to know in order to get good marks. However, this comes with a word of warning. You need to have a good insight into what your exam board expects you to know.

Over to you

That's pretty much a masterclass in how to revise geography case studies. Now it's up to you to put it into practice

In the comments below I'd love to know:

What you're finding difficult about revising geography case studies
What other subjects you need revision help with

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Geographical Indications : review of seven case-studies world wide

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Hurricane Katrina Case Study

Hurricane Katrina is tied with Hurricane Harvey (2017) as the costliest hurricane on record. Although not the strongest in recorded history, the hurricane caused an estimated $125 billion worth of damage. The category five hurricane is the joint eight strongest ever recorded, with sustained winds of 175 mph (280 km/h).

The hurricane began as a very low-pressure system over the Atlantic Ocean. The system strengthened, forming a hurricane that moved west, approaching the Florida coast on the evening of the 25th August 2005.

A satellite image of Hurricane Katrina.

Hurricane Katrina was an extremely destructive and deadly Category 5 hurricane. It made landfall on Florida and Louisiana, particularly the city of New Orleans and surrounding areas, in August 2005, causing catastrophic damage from central Florida to eastern Texas. Fatal flaws in flood engineering protection led to a significant loss of life in New Orleans. The levees, designed to cope with category three storm surges, failed to lead to catastrophic flooding and loss of life.

What were the impacts of Hurricane Katrina?

Hurricane Katrina was a category five tropical storm. The hurricane caused storm surges over six metres in height. The city of New Orleans was one of the worst affected areas. This is because it lies below sea level and is protected by levees. The levees protect the city from the Mississippi River and Lake Ponchartrain. However, these were unable to cope with the storm surge, and water flooded the city.

$105 billion was sought by The Bush Administration for repairs and reconstruction in the region. This funding did not include potential interruption of the oil supply, destruction of the Gulf Coast’s highway infrastructure, and exports of commodities such as grain.

Although the state made an evacuation order, many of the poorest people remained in New Orleans because they either wanted to protect their property or could not afford to leave.

The Superdome stadium was set up as a centre for people who could not escape the storm. There was a shortage of food, and the conditions were unhygienic.

Looting occurred throughout the city, and tensions were high as people felt unsafe. 1,200 people drowned in the floods, and 1 million people were made homeless. Oil facilities were damaged, and as a result, the price of petrol rose in the UK and USA.

80% of the city of New Orleans and large neighbouring parishes became flooded, and the floodwaters remained for weeks. Most of the transportation and communication networks servicing New Orleans were damaged or disabled by the flooding, and tens of thousands of people who had not evacuated the city before landfall became stranded with little access to food, shelter or basic necessities.

The storm surge caused substantial beach erosion , in some cases completely devastating coastal areas.

Katrina also produced massive tree loss along the Gulf Coast, particularly in Louisiana’s Pearl River Basin and among bottomland hardwood forests.

The storm caused oil spills from 44 facilities throughout southeastern Louisiana. This resulted in over 7 million US gallons (26,000 m 3 ) of oil being leaked. Some spills were only a few hundred gallons, and most were contained on-site, though some oil entered the ecosystem and residential areas.

Some New Orleans residents are no longer able to get home insurance to cover them from the impact of hurricanes.

What was the response to Hurricane Katrina?

The US Government was heavily criticised for its handling of the disaster. Despite many people being evacuated, it was a very slow process. The poorest and most vulnerable were left behind.

The government provided $50 billion in aid.

During the early stages of the recovery process, the UK government sent food aid.

The National Guard was mobilised to restore law and order in New Orleans.

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Hurricane Florence

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GIS Insights, Musings, and Resources from Spatial-Thinking Brainiacs

That Time GIS Stopped a Serial Killer

A crime happens and the chase to find the offender is on. We have all seen our share of crime dramas, documentaries, and news stories. We have all heard of psychologically profiling offenders in order to understand what drives them to commit crimes.

Psychology tells us that serial offenders are creatures of habit. They have a well-defined geographic area of operation. It is their comfort zone and an area of intimate familiarity. They know the lay of the land, they know the people.

Criminal statistics show us that most of these areas of activity are anchored by either the criminal’s home or place of employment. So if we put that location information together into a Geographic profile of the offender then we can use GIS tools to aid Law Enforcement in their criminal investigations.

Geographic Profiling

Geographic profiling is an investigative and information management system that takes the location of incidents and uses that data to determine the likely home base of the offender. Geographic profiling does require multiple data points in order to be effective. And as such it is best suited for use in investigating serial crimes such as murder, rape, arson, burglary, and robbery.

In addition to locating the offender’s likely home base, work, travel routes, and social habits can also be derived by this data. With this geographic information, police can better deploy their resources to investigate the crime. Think of the incident data as arrows on a bullseye only you can’t see the rings. Clusters of incidents tell you where your rings are and the center of your cluster, the Bullseye, tells you the most likely area for the offender’s home base.

Geographic profiling alone will not solve crimes but it is a valuable tool for investigators as they work to apprehend the offender. ESRI© offers a tool in ArcGIS, called Crime Analysis. Criminal Analysis is a GIS tool specifically tailored to take incident data and perform complex spatial analysis and create high-quality maps that can help law enforcement make better decisions on how to allocate resources, investigate and solve cases.

GIS and the Green River Killer

Let’s look at how GIS and geographic profiling were applied to one of America’s most prolific serial killers. He was referred to in the press as the Green River Killer, and between the years 1982 and 1998, the bodies of 48 young women, most of whom were prostitutes, were found in wooded areas along the Green River in Washington State.

In 2001, Gary Ridgway was arrested and ultimately confessed to the murders. To create a geographic profile of Ridgeway, law enforcement begins by taking incident data that was a reasonable match for belonging to the same offender and plots them on a map. By first mapping out the locations that were used to dispose of bodies and information on areas that the victims were most likely to have been taken from (in this case, areas of known prostitution).

When examining the data, investigators are able to see clusters of activity. In Ridgeway’s case, there were two defined clusters, one being the area of victim selection and the other being the area of victim disposal. Data is then analyzed as to what is near these locations. One of the Ridgeway clusters was in an area populated by businesses and the other was in a residential area.

When you analyze that spatial information along with what is known about serial offender psychology, an investigator can make use of that information to better deploy search efforts to locate the offender. This information also can provide insight into commonly traveled routes and other habits. This data is then used to guide law enforcement on how to deploy patrols, area to canvas, and more.

If you are wondering how accurate this information can be, Ridgway’s place of employment was near the cluster representing the last known locations of his victims. According to interviews with Ridgeway, he often looked for victims before and after work.

Ridgway also told investigators that he disposed of his victims near his home because he liked to revisit them. He even went so far as to confirm that because of media coverage and increased police presence in areas that he frequented he had intentionally placed bodies outside of his comfort zone in an effort to throw law enforcement off of his trail.

This is how GIS got into the game of hunting serial killers and other serial offenders. If you are interested in learning more about how GIS can be used by law enforcement to reduce or solve crime check out these great links.

Problem Location Analysis using the Crime Analysis Solution
GIS and Serial Killers Case Study: The Green River Killer
How Houston PD is Using GIS to Go Beyond Crime Analysis
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ENVIRONMENT

Streetlights are influencing nature—from how leaves grow to how insects eat

The steady glow from streetlights is changing the texture of tree leaves, making them less appetizing to insects, according to new research from China.

Light pollution and fog combining to blur a New York City skyline at night. Central park sits eerily blanketed by fog in the foreground.

Light pollution has increased about 10 percent each year over the past decade, making it one of the most drastic changes humans have made to the environment—and insects worldwide are noticing.

Artificial lights that run all night, like streetlights, can make leaves grow tougher and less appetizing for insects, according to new research in Frontiers in Plant Science . This change to photosynthesis could threaten the small food chains that exist within cities.

Taking a closer look at well-lit leaves

Nighttime artificial light affects wildlife throughout the world, with studies showing it skews animals’ circadian rhythms , interferes with amphibian reproduction , confuses sea turtle hatchlings searching for the moon, and throws migrating birds off course.

Insects behave differently when there’s light at night: artificial light hinders firefly communication and reproduction , and some insects may become more visible to predators like bats, or be attracted to lights that can kill them.

Researchers based at the Chinese Academy of Sciences were curious about how light might affect relationships between insects and plants. They noticed tree leaves in cities typically showed fewer signs of insect damage than those outside of cities, so they analyzed leaf samples from trees throughout Beijing.

Green leaves illuminated by a bright street lamp, which is framed through the foliage.

Focusing on two common street trees—the Japanese pagoda and green ash tree—at 30 sites spaced apart among main roads illuminated at night, the researchers measured brightness and collected leaves. They evaluated almost 5,500 leaves for size, toughness, and levels of nutrients and chemicals, and analyzed them for signs of insects.

Examining leaves’ composition and characteristics can tell scientists a lot about how that plant is using resources. Plants grow differently depending on factors in their environment.

“Plants distribute their limited resources (such as nutrients, water, and energy) among various functions like growth, reproduction, and defense,” says Ellen Cieraad, plant ecologist at Nelson Marlborough Institute of Technology in New Zealand, in an email. “Depending on the environment, it makes sense to invest in different types of functions.” If there are a lot of herbivores around, for example, plants may prioritize defending against being eaten—with thorns, unappetizing chemicals, or tougher leaves.

And for both species of trees the researchers studied, more artificial light in a given area meant tougher leaves. And the tougher the leaf, the less evidence of hungry insects. In areas with the most intense light, leaves were more likely have no signs of insect predation.

A lone cyclist riding through Primrose Hill, which is dotted with street lamps casting their light on patches of grass.

What do tougher leaves mean for urban environments?

While the researchers from the new study don’t fully understand why plants are reacting to streetlights in this way, they hypothesize that trees under artificial light at night might be extending their photosynthesis cycle. Since plants use light for growth, explains Shuang Zhang, biologist at the Chinese Academy of Sciences and author of the paper, artificial night light could be unnaturally increasing the time trees spend on photosynthesis.

Scientists don’t fully understand how plants will respond and adapt to the change, says Cieraad.

The type of light also affects how plants use resources: for example absorbing the red light from sunlight can make plants develop tougher leaves, says Cieraad, but these mechanisms probably work differently for artificial red light at night. So something about Beijing’s streetlights could be making the trees in this new study allocate more resources to chemical compounds that make leaves tougher.

This research needs to be expanded to other plant species, says Zhang. “If artificial light at night also makes the leaves of other species tougher, this would be bad news for insects,” says Zhang.

Changes in plants, and in interactions between plants and animals, can significantly impact the entire urban ecosystem.

A poor diet might cause herbivorous insects die off, resulting in fewer insects that eat those herbivorous insects, and fewer insect-eating birds, and so on up the food chain.

Beyond forming a crucial link in food webs, herbivorous insects are sometimes pollinators and contribute to biodiversity. They also eat decaying plants, helping to break down leaves and returning nutrients to soil. In cities, healthy soil and healthy plant life supported by insects are good for humans. Plants in cities provide shade and mitigate heat trapped in cities.

To minimize the negative impacts of light at night, Zhang recommends simply reducing light intensity. The study found a linear relationship between brightness at night and how much leaves were eaten by insects, so just reducing light intensity could make leaves more appealing to insects.

In cities we should focus on only lighting what and when it is needed, says Cieraad. Motion sensors could also help, as could shields for streetlights so light doesn’t spill into surrounding areas.

At home, biologists recommend turning off lights that aren’t needed at night, using motion activated lights, choosing fixtures that direct light only where it’s needed, and using amber-colored lights near homes which appear to be the safest for insects.

Like a moth to a flame? A new study debunks an age-old theory

Fireflies are vanishing—but you can help protect them

Billions of cicadas are about to emerge, creating a once-in-a-lifetime spectacle

Don't cut them down: Letting dead trees rot can help make new life

This invisible killer takes out 3.5 billion U.S. birds a year

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AQA GCSE Geography Liverpool Case Study Urban Issues

Subject: Geography

Age range: 14-16

Resource type: Unit of work

Last updated

7 August 2024

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A full set of updated (2024) resources ready for teaching for AQA GCSE Geography Urban Issues case study using the city of Liverpool.

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Article Versions Notes

Action	Date	Notes	Link
article pdf uploaded.	11 August 2024 12:11 CEST	Version of Record

Chen, R.; Zhou, S.; Liu, S.; Li, Z.; Xie, J. Assessment of Urban Spatial Integration Using Human Settlement Environmental Geographic Dataset: A Case Study in the Guangzhou–Foshan Metropolitan Area. Land 2024 , 13 , 1262. https://doi.org/10.3390/land13081262

Chen R, Zhou S, Liu S, Li Z, Xie J. Assessment of Urban Spatial Integration Using Human Settlement Environmental Geographic Dataset: A Case Study in the Guangzhou–Foshan Metropolitan Area. Land . 2024; 13(8):1262. https://doi.org/10.3390/land13081262

Chen, Rui, Siyu Zhou, Shuyuan Liu, Zifeng Li, and Jing Xie. 2024. "Assessment of Urban Spatial Integration Using Human Settlement Environmental Geographic Dataset: A Case Study in the Guangzhou–Foshan Metropolitan Area" Land 13, no. 8: 1262. https://doi.org/10.3390/land13081262

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A heat advisory in effect for 7 regions in the area

New mars study suggests an ocean's worth of water may be hiding beneath the red dusty surface.

Marcia Dunn

Associated Press

CAPE CANAVERAL, Fla. – Mars may be drenched beneath its surface, with enough water hiding in the cracks of underground rocks to form a global ocean, new research suggests.

The findings released Monday are based on seismic measurements from NASA’s Mars InSight lander , which detected more than 1,300 marsquakes before shutting down two years ago.

Eco-conscious fashionistas hampered by geographical barriers to return clothing

Shoppers’ location has a major impact on the effectiveness of clothing return schemes, a new study reveals.

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Integration of two-dimensional materials-based perovskite solar panels into a stand-alone solar farm

Sustainability pathways for perovskite photovoltaics

Efficiency limits of concentrating spectral-splitting hybrid photovoltaic-thermal (PV-T) solar collectors and systems

Introduction.

Solar photovoltaic (PV) technology has become a cornerstone of the renewable energy revolution, offering a clean, sustainable solution to the world's growing energy demands 1 . At its core, solar PV harnesses the sun's energy, converting it directly into electricity through semiconducting materials. This technology has traditionally been dominated by monofacial PV modules 2 , which collect sunlight from a single surface facing the sun. However, as the need for more efficient and cost-effective energy solutions intensifies, the evolution of solar PV has given rise to the bifacial module 3 , 4 —a novel approach to solar energy capture that promises to redefine the efficiency standards of solar energy systems.

Bifacial PV modules, as shown in Fig. 1 , are designed to capture sunlight on both their front and rear surfaces, utilizing direct sunlight and the light that reaches the rear surface through ground reflection and diffuse albedo 5 , 6 . Despite relying on silicon cells with the same spectral response as monofacial PV modules, the dual-sided design of bifacial modules allows them to significantly enhance energy yield by absorbing reflected and diffused light from surrounding surfaces 7 . This design is particularly beneficial in environments with high ground reflectivity or engineered ground covers to increase reflectivity 8 .

Illustration of bifacial PV system operation. The arrows indicate the different pathways of sunlight: yellow arrows represent direct sunlight hitting the front surface and the ground, orange arrows indicate the sunlight reflected from the ground hitting the rear surface, and red arrows depict the diffuse sunlight captured by both the front and rear surfaces 11 .

Moreover, the integration of bifacial PV technology aligns seamlessly with the global push towards sustainable development. By enhancing the power output of solar installations without the need for additional land, bifacial PV systems contribute to a more efficient use of resources. This efficiency is not confined to optimal conditions; bifacial modules demonstrate resilience in a variety of environmental settings 11 , 12 , including regions with lower solar irradiance and urban landscapes 13 where space and light conditions are constrained.

The significance of bifacial PV modules extends beyond their operational advantages. Their deployment has profound implications for energy policy, economic planning, and environmental strategy. By offering a more versatile and powerful solution for solar energy generation, bifacial PV systems can accelerate the transition to renewable energy sources, reduce dependency on fossil fuels, and mitigate the impacts of climate change.

In the realm of bifacial PV technology, various configurations have been explored to maximize the efficiency and adaptability of solar energy systems. These include vertical, tilted, and other innovative arrangements, each with its unique operational characteristics and applications. Vertical bifacial PV systems: These systems involve panels mounted in a vertical orientation. The key advantage of vertical bifacial PV is its ability to capture sunlight effectively throughout the day, from both sides of the panel 14 . This configuration is particularly beneficial in higher latitudes where the sun is lower in the sky 15 . Vertical systems are also less prone to accumulating dirt and debris, reducing maintenance requirements. Current research indicates that vertical bifacial systems can achieve significant energy gains in urban environments, where space is limited, and in regions with considerable diffuse light 16 .

Tilted bifacial PV Systems: Tilted systems are more traditional, where panels are installed at an angle to maximize exposure to direct sunlight. Bifacial panels in this configuration can capture reflected light from the ground or any reflective surface below. The optimal tilt angle is a subject of ongoing research, with studies 17 , 18 , 19 suggesting that slight adjustments in the tilt can lead to substantial increases in energy capture, particularly in areas with high ground albedo. And finally, tracking bifacial PV systems: These are dynamic systems where panels can adjust their orientation to follow the sun’s path 20 . This tracking capability, combined with bifacial technology, maximizes solar energy capture throughout the day. Research 21 , 22 shows that tracking bifacial systems offer the highest yield, especially in regions with high direct sunlight, making them a promising solution for large-scale solar farms.

Each of these configurations brings unique advantages and challenges, shaping the current research and development in the field of bifacial PV technology. Studies are continually underway to optimize the design, installation, and operational parameters of these systems. This includes investigating factors like the optimal distance between rows of panels 23 to prevent shading, the effect of different surfaces 24 and materials on light reflection, and the integration of smart technologies for performance monitoring and optimization. Furthermore, the performance of bifacial PV systems is significantly influenced by shading and the reflective properties of surrounding surfaces. Shading can reduce the overall efficiency by blocking sunlight from reaching both the front and rear surfaces of the panels. Detailed models of shading and illumination, such as those reported by 25 and 26 , provide comprehensive insights into these effects. In 25 the authors demonstrated that partial shading could lead to substantial reductions in energy output, especially in high-density installations. Further work by 26 explored the impacts of various surface materials and albedo on bifacial PV performance, showing that engineered surfaces with higher reflectivity can enhance energy yield by increasing the diffuse light captured by the rear surface of the panels. These models underscore the importance of considering shading and surface properties in the design and deployment of bifacial PV systems to optimize their performance.

The evolution of bifacial PV modules represents more than just an incremental improvement in solar technology; it signifies a paradigm shift in how solar energy is harvested. Unlike traditional monofacial systems that are limited by their unidirectional light capture, bifacial systems exploit the full spectrum of solar irradiance. This is achieved through a combination of advanced cell technology and innovative panel designs, which optimize light absorption from multiple angles. While Heterojunction (HJT) cells are a prominent technology used in bifacial modules, other technologies such as n-type 27 , Passivated Emitter and Rear Cell (PERC) 28 , Passivated Emitter Rear Totally Diffused (PERT) 29 , Passivated Emitter Rear Locally Diffused (PERL) 30 , and Interdigitated Back Contact (IBC) 30 solar cells are also suitable for bifacial applications, demonstrating widely successful results. These technologies collectively contribute to the marked increase in energy production per unit area 31 , a critical factor in maximizing the efficiency of solar installations.

This study introduces the first-ever exploration and publication on the vertically mounted bifacial photovoltaic (VBPV) system, a groundbreaking advancement in solar energy technology. This prototype's uniqueness stems from its vertical orientation and the use of high-efficiency Heterojunction (HJT) cells, a significant departure from traditional solar panel setups. Our research is pioneering in its empirical approach, offering the initial real-world evaluation of the VBPV system's performance across various environmental conditions over an entire year. This includes a comparative analysis with conventional monofacial systems, providing new insights into the practical efficiencies and benefits of bifacial technology. Additionally, the study navigates the complexities of modelling such an innovative system, addressing the challenges in accurately predicting performance and highlighting the need for advanced simulation techniques.

Materials and methods

New vertical pv bifacial concept design.

This study presents a pioneering exploration and evaluation of the vertically mounted bifacial photovoltaic system, focusing on its unique design and operational characteristics. The VBPV system utilizes high-efficiency HJT cells and is mounted in a vertical orientation, which significantly differs from traditional solar panel setups 32 , 33 . The experimental setup involved the installation of the VBPV system on the rooftop of the Physics Tower at the University of York (Fig. 2 a). The system comprises 36 series-connected PV units with a maximum output power of 1.5 kW under standard test conditions (STC) of 1000 W/m 2 irradiance and 25 °C ambient temperature. The location of the system was selected to maximize exposure to sunlight while also taking advantage of the reflective properties of the surrounding environment. The ground surface material beneath and around the PV modules is white gravel, known for its high albedo. This choice of material enhances the diffuse reflection, thereby increasing the amount of light captured by the rear side of the bifacial panels and boosting the overall energy yield. This setup ensures that the system benefits from both direct and reflected sunlight, optimizing its performance across various environmental conditions.

The new VBPV system examined in this work. ( a ) The system is located on the rooftop of the Physics Tower at the University of York, UK. The ground surface material is white gravel, chosen to enhance the albedo effect and increase the diffuse reflection captured by the rear side of the bifacial panels, ( b ) CFD simulation of the VBPV system under examination in this work, indicating the system has negligible lift forces at extreme wind speeds of 27.2 m/s.

The distance between each row of modules is 50 cm. This spacing was determined based on extensive simulations by Over Easy Solar AS, Norway, to optimize the balance between minimizing shading and maximizing ground reflection. This decision, while not arbitrary, aligns with findings from other research indicating that the optimal distance is a function of module height and should be carefully considered for each specific installation 34 , 35 , 36 . In addition to the nominal power output, the system's performance characteristics include a temperature coefficient of −0.29%/°C and a conversion efficiency of 22.5%, which are critical for understanding the operational efficiency and resilience of the VBPV system under varying environmental conditions.

The performance of the VBPV system was continuously monitored over a full annual cycle, from February 2023 to December 2023, and compared against a vertically mounted monocrystalline silicon monofacial PV (VMPV) system and a traditional tilted monofacial PV (TMPV) system. Data was recorded using a 3-kW inverter integrated with the university's grid, allowing for real-time tracking and analysis of energy production. This comprehensive empirical approach provides valuable insights into the practical efficiencies and benefits of bifacial technology, highlighting the superior performance of the VBPV system under varied environmental conditions.

The VBPV system was subjected to a Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulation to assess its aerodynamic stability. The simulation was conducted using ANSYS Fluent, employing a k-ε turbulence model to accurately capture the airflow dynamics around the panels. The boundary conditions included an inlet wind speed of up to 27 m/s, representing extreme weather conditions that the system might encounter. The panels were modeled with a surface roughness corresponding to the actual material properties, and the spacing between panels was set at 50 cm, as per the physical setup.

The CFD simulation results, shown in Fig. 2 b, reveal that the VBPV system maintains minimal lift forces even at high wind speeds of up to 27 m/s. This indicates exceptional aerodynamic stability, which is crucial for ensuring the durability and safety of the installation in adverse weather conditions. In comparison, traditional tilted PV systems have been documented to experience higher lift forces under similar wind conditions due to their inclined surfaces which can act like airfoils.

Data comparison and analysis

The innovative VBPV system under study is strategically positioned on the rooftop of the Physics Tower at the University of York, UK. It has been meticulously oriented towards the south to optimize solar gain. This system is seamlessly integrated with a 3-kW inverter, which facilitates the direct feed of generated electricity into the university's grid. The performance data of the system is meticulously monitored and recorded through the inverter's online platform, ensuring real-time tracking and analysis of energy production.

The installation of the VBPV system was completed in December 2022, with its official commissioning taking place in January 2023. As such, the performance data presented and analyzed in this work encompasses a comprehensive annual cycle, ranging from February 2023 to the end of December 2023. This dataset provides a robust foundation for assessing the system’s efficiency and energy output across various seasonal conditions.

To establish a baseline for comparison and underscore the VBPV system's performance, we juxtaposed its data against that of a vertically mounted monocrystalline silicon monofacial PV (VMPV) system situated adjacent to it, with the same PV capacity of 1.5 kW. This parallel analysis illuminates the advantages of bifacial technology in a like-for-like vertical setup. Furthermore, to extend the comparative analysis, we scrutinized the VBPV system's output relative to that of a traditional tiled 1.5 kW polycrystalline silicon monofacial PV system (TMPV). The latter is installed at the customary 45-degree angle prevalent in UK solar installations, thus representing the conventional approach to solar energy generation in the region; all PV configurations examined in this work are presented in Fig. 3 .

Comparison of Three Examined Photovoltaic (PV) System Configurations.

The power gain between two PV systems, such as the VBPV compared to VMPV or TMPV, is calculated using (1).

where $Power\; Output_{VBPV}$ is the electrical power output of the VBPV, and $ Power \;Output_{Reference\; System}$ is the electrical power output of the reference system, which can be either VMPV or TMPV.

Vertical bifacial PV vs vertical monofacial PV

In the evaluation of PV systems performance, a comparative analysis was conducted between the VBPV system and the VMPV system. The results, illustrated in Fig. 4 a, b, present a compelling narrative on the efficacy of bifacial technology in solar energy capture throughout the day. Figure 4 a delineates the power output patterns of both systems over a 24-h period. Notably, the VBPV system exhibited a pronounced increase in power generation during the early morning hours, from 5:30 to 9:00 AM, where a bifacial gain of 1.64 kWh was recorded. This trend was not an isolated incident; a similar surge was observed in the late afternoon window from 5:00 to 8:30 PM, with an additional gain of 1.39 kWh. Collectively, these increments contributed to a total daily power output of 24.57 kWh for the VBPV system, compared to 23.3 kWh for the VMPV system, marking a 1.27 kWh gain or a 7.87% improvement.

Comparative daily power output of VBPV versus VMPV Systems, highlighting bifacial gain in early morning and late afternoon hours, ( a ) Day 1, ( b ) Day 2. This data was taken on 26th April 2023, with a mean temperature of 14.3 °C.

Complementing this, Fig. 4 b reaffirms the superior performance of the VBPV system under what can be presumed to be varying operational conditions. The early morning hours once again showed an enhanced power output with a gain of 2.46 kWh, while the afternoon session contributed an additional 1.87 kWh. Collectively, these increments contributed to a total daily power output of 24.66 kWh for the VBPV system, compared to 22.85 kWh for the VMPV system, marking a 1.81 kWh gain or a 11.45% improvement.

The consistency with which the VBPV system outstripped the VMPV system in energy generation is a testament to the inherent advantages of bifacial technology. By effectively harnessing sunlight not only from direct overhead exposure but also from reflected light, the VBPV system demonstrates its capacity for increased energy capture, particularly during the low-angle sunlight periods at dawn and dusk. This ability to capitalize on diffuse and reflected irradiance adds a dimension of efficiency that is particularly advantageous in regions with significant ground albedo 21 , 24 or in installations with reflective surroundings.

Vertical bifacial PV vs tilted monofacial PV

Our comprehensive assessment extends to Fig. 5 a, b, which provide further evidence of the enhanced performance of the VBPV system compared to the TMPV system. These figures represent a pivotal set of data showcasing the daily power output and clearly delineate the differential advantages offered by the bifacial technology under varied lighting conditions.

Comparative daily power output of VBPV versus TMPV Systems, ( a ) Day 1, ( b ) Day 2. This data was taken on 7 th May 2023, with a mean temperature of 16.7 °C.

In Fig. 5 a, we observe that the VBPV system significantly surpasses the TMPV system during the early hours, with a recorded bifacial gain of 3.24 kWh between 5:30 and 9:00 AM. This trend of increased efficiency extends to the latter part of the day, with an additional gain of 2.59 kWh noted from 5:00 to 8:30 PM. The aggregate gain for the VBPV system in this instance is an impressive 4.92 kWh, which equates to an enhancement of 25.38% when compared to its monofacial counterpart.

Similarly, Fig. 5 b corroborates the superior performance of the bifacial system. The morning hours once again present a marked advantage with a bifacial gain of 2.71 kWh. The evening period contributes to this lead with a gain of 2.03 kWh. Together, these increases amount to a total gain of 3.91 kWh for the VBPV system, representing a 21.40% boost in power output over the TMPV system.

The substantial gains in power output during the less intense light conditions of morning and evening highlight the potential for VBPV systems to provide a more consistent energy supply throughout the day, mitigating the well-known midday peak in power generation associated with traditional solar systems. This distribution of energy generation could align more closely with typical consumption patterns, thereby enhancing the match between supply and demand. For instance, residential energy consumption typically peaks in the early morning and late afternoon to evening hours, coinciding with periods when people are at home and engaging in activities such as cooking, heating, and using electronic devices 37 . Similarly, commercial buildings experience peak energy demand in the late morning and early afternoon, driven by the operation of lighting, HVAC systems, and office equipment 38 , 39 . By aligning energy generation with these demand patterns, VBPV systems can improve grid stability and reduce the reliance on energy storage solutions or supplementary power sources.

Monthly power gain comparison

This section analyzes the performance enhancements of the VBPV system in comparison to both VMPV and TMPV systems, as depicted in Figs. 6 and 7 , respectively. Figure 6 offers a nuanced view of the monthly power gains achieved by the VBPV system over the VMPV system, categorized by season. The histograms detail the frequency of power gain percentages, with a red dashed line indicating the seasonal average. In spring, the VBPV system shows a robust average power gain of 11.42%, indicating its superior performance during a time when sun angles and daylight hours start to increase. Summer, typically characterized by high solar irradiance, presents an average gain of 8.13%, a figure that might reflect high baseline performance from the VMPV system, reducing the relative gain. Autumn and winter follow with average gains of 10.94% and 12.45%, respectively, illustrating the VBPV system's effective light capture even during seasons with lower solar angles and shorter daylight hours.

VBPV compared to VMPV. ( a ) Monthly power gain (Percentage, %) for VBPV over VMPV. ( b ) Seasonal variations in power gain (Percentage, %) for VBPV over VMPV. The histograms represent the frequency distribution of the power gain percentages, and the red dashed lines indicate the seasonal average power gains.

VBPV compared to TMPV. ( a ) Monthly power gain (Percentage, %) for VBPV over TMPV. ( b ) Seasonal variations in power gain (Percentage, %) for VBPV over TMPV. The histograms represent the frequency distribution of the power gain percentages, and the red dashed lines indicate the seasonal average power gains.

Turning to Fig. 7 , the VBPV system's performance is compared with the TMPV system. Here, the seasonal average power gains are significantly higher, underscoring the VBPV system's advanced capabilities. Spring shows a remarkable average gain of 19.32%, indicating the profound impact of bifacial technology during this season. Summer months present an average gain of 14.77%, autumn shows a substantial 20.27%, and winter peaks with a 24.52% average gain, reinforcing the idea that the VBPV system's design is particularly beneficial in capturing low-angle light and diffused reflections, a common scenario in the colder months.

The data from Figs. 6 and 7 underscore the VBPV system's consistent and significant outperformance relative to both the VMPV and TMPV systems across all seasons. The marked efficiency of the VBPV system is reflective of its dual-capture capability, which enables it to harness light from both its front and rear surfaces. This capability is evidenced in the results by the substantial power gains observed during periods of diffuse light conditions, such as early morning and late afternoon, as well as during seasons with lower sun angles, like autumn and winter. Specifically, the VBPV system's ability to capture reflected light from the ground and surrounding surfaces significantly contributes to its enhanced performance, as demonstrated by the higher average power gains in comparison to monofacial systems. This dual-capture feature ensures that the VBPV system maximizes energy harvest from both direct sunlight and diffuse, reflected light, leading to a more consistent and higher overall energy output.

In concluding to this section, Fig. 8 offers a comprehensive statistical overview of the PV systems over an annual cycle. The box plot visualization encapsulates the monthly power gain percentages, delivering a succinct and robust comparative analysis. The box plots reveal that the VBPV system consistently exhibits higher power gains when compared to the TMPV and VMPV systems throughout the year. These gains are quantified by the median of each box, indicating that regardless of the month, the VBPV system capitalizes on its design, which allows it to capture additional energy from reflected light not accessible to monofacial systems.

Annual comparative analysis of monthly power gain percentages for VBPV versus TMPV and VBPV versus VMPV systems. The box plots illustrate the distribution of monthly power gain percentages for each system throughout the year. The blue box plot shows the power gain of the VBPV system compared to the TMPV system, while the green box plot shows the power gain of the VBPV system compared to the VMPV system. Median values are indicated by the horizontal lines within each box.

A critical observation from Fig. 8 is that the VBPV system not only outperforms the TMPV but also shows a significant advantage over the VMPV system. This distinction is noteworthy as it suggests that the enhancements in bifacial technology translate to tangible gains in power output, even when compared to a more conventional monofacial system like the VMPV. When analyzing the VBPV's performance against the TMPV system, we see an even more pronounced difference in reflective gain. The box plots for the VBPV and TMPV comparison stretch higher on the percentage axis, indicating that the traditional system, without the advanced technology of the VMPV, falls short in harnessing the available solar energy. Moreover, the box plots for the VBPV and VMPV comparison demonstrate that the VMPV, while more efficient than the TMPV, cannot match the VBPV system's capacity for increased energy capture. This pattern is consistent across all months, underlining the VBPV's superior design and efficiency.

To ascertain the financial benefits of VBPV systems, we conducted an analysis based on the monthly power gain percentages derived from empirical data, taken from Fig. 8 . Using an assumed standard monthly energy output of 1500 kWh as a baseline for all the systems, we applied the power gain percentages to estimate the additional energy produced solely due to the bifacial gain. The cost of electricity was factored in at the 2023 standard variable price of 28.62p/kWh. This price point reflects the retail electricity rate for an average consumer in the UK, which is subject to regional variations and market fluctuations. The analysis revealed discernible monthly fluctuations in savings (as shown in Fig. 9 ), which correspond with the changes in power gain percentages over the course of the year. The savings reached their zenith during the summer months, in alignment with the augmented power gains from increased solar irradiance. Conversely, the savings diminished during the winter months, reflecting the diminished solar irradiance inherent to the season.

Comparative Estimation of Monthly Savings Achieved Through Power Gain: A side-by-side comparison of the economic advantages of using VBPV systems versus VMPV systems (in green) and TMPV systems (in blue), across each month of the year.

For the VBPV compared with the VMPV systems, the additional solar energy captured by the bifacial technology translated into considerable monthly and cumulative annual savings. With the power output for these systems set at 1500 kWh, the use of VBPV systems resulted in a total estimated annual saving of £932.58 over the VMPV systems (Fig. 9 ). These savings are reflective of the consistent additional power generation offered by VBPV systems across all months, with the highest gains observed during the peak solar irradiance months of summer. In comparison to the TMPV systems, the VBPV systems demonstrated even greater economic advantages. The enhanced power gain percentages of VBPV systems, particularly noted during the winter months, emphasize their efficiency in low-irradiance conditions. The annual savings when comparing VBPV to TMPV systems amounted to a notable £1,221.13. This significant difference in savings highlights the VBPV system's ability to harness solar energy more effectively throughout the year, including during periods of lower sunlight availability.

In addition to the power gain analysis, a cost estimation comparison between the VBPV, VMPV, and TMPV systems is provided. The analysis considers the initial installation costs, maintenance costs, and the economic benefits derived from the increased energy output of the VBPV system. The initial installation cost of the VBPV system is higher than that of the VMPV and TMPV systems due to the advanced bifacial technology and the need for specialized mounting structures. Based on current market prices, the estimated cost per kW for VBPV systems is approximately £1,200, compared to £1,000 for VMPV and £900 for TMPV systems. Maintenance costs for VBPV systems are slightly lower due to the reduced accumulation of dirt and debris on vertically mounted panels.

To provide a comprehensive economic comparison, the annual energy savings and return on investment (ROI) were calculated. The cost of electricity in the UK is approximately £0.2862 per kWh. The annual additional energy produced by the VBPV system, as demonstrated in Fig. 9 , results in significant cost savings compared to VMPV and TMPV systems.

Bificail PV system gain vs solar irradiance

This section presents a critical analysis of the modeling challenges and successes encountered in simulating the performance of bifacial PV systems. Plane of Array (POA) irradiance, which refers to the solar irradiance incident on the plane of the PV array, is a key parameter in this analysis. However, to provide a complete picture of the relations, both direct and diffuse irradiance contributions to the bifacial gain are compared.

Figure 10 illuminates the relationship between bifacial gain and incident light, showcasing a clear trend where increased diffuse irradiance correlates with higher bifacial gain. This direct association highlights the complex interplay between light conditions and the energy capture efficiency of bifacial panels 7 . The scatter of data points emphasizes the difficulty in predicting performance due to the variability of solar irradiance, especially the proportion of diffuse light 40 . Such insights indicate that current modeling approaches may need refinement to account for this variability. This complexity is further evidenced by the limited data available for bifacial systems, which constrains the ability of models to accurately capture the nuances of their performance. The scarcity of robust datasets is a significant hurdle, suggesting a pressing need for more comprehensive data collection to improve the predictability and reliability of bifacial PV system models.

Correlation between bifacial gain and diffuse irradiance, highlighting the importance of diffuse light in bifacial PV system performance. The scatter plots show data points and regression lines indicating the trend, highlighting the significant role of diffuse irradiance in bifacial PV system performance.

Transitioning to Fig. 11 a, we examine the initial modeling attempts using the SAM NREL model 41 , 42 , which did not adequately capture the performance of the VBPV system. The figure portrays a significant discrepancy between modeled DC power and measured DC power, evidenced by the mean model error of 37.16% and an RMSE of 0.38%. This gap between expected and actual performance underscores the limitations of the model when it does not incorporate critical factors such as the variability of sunlight, particularly the diffuse component.

Modelling VBPV system output power (mix between hourly and daily data samples), ( a ) Initial modelling results, ( b ) Refined modelling results with adjusted sunlight variability.

In the quest to enhance the fidelity of PV system performance models, the incorporation of sunlight variability, specifically the ratio of diffuse to direct sunlight, stands as a pivotal aspect. This is particularly crucial for bifacial PV systems due to their ability to capture light from both their front and rear sides. The ratio of diffuse to direct sunlight can dramatically influence the amount of light received by the rear side of bifacial panels, which is not directly exposed to the sun. For this reason, Fig. 11 b presents a refined modeling approach where the variability of the sun, especially the ratio of diffuse to direct sunlight, is accounted for. The adjusted model results in a markedly improved correlation between modeled and measured DC power, with a substantially reduced mean model error of 11.55% and an RMSE of 0.12%. This improved alignment validates our hypothesis that incorporating the dynamic nature of sunlight, and its interactions with bifacial panels, is essential to accurately simulate their performance.

The refined model can be described by a set of equations that account for the bifacial gain, which is a function of both the direct and diffuse components of solar irradiance. The ratio of diffuse to direct irradiance, also known as the clearness index, is a crucial parameter in evaluating the performance of bifacial PV systems. This ratio, widely reported in the literature, indicates the proportion of solar radiation that is diffuse as opposed to direct. A higher clearness index signifies more diffuse light, which is particularly advantageous for bifacial systems as they can capture light from both their front and rear surfaces. According to 43 , understanding the clearness index is essential for accurately modeling bifacial PV performance, as it affects the amount of light available for the rear side of the panels. Similarly 44 , emphasized that regions with higher diffuse irradiance ratios exhibit enhanced bifacial gains. These findings underscore the importance of incorporating the clearness index in performance models for bifacial PV systems.

Let ${G}_{bifacial}$ be the bifacial gain, ${I}_{direct}$ is the direct irradiance, ${I}_{diffuse}$ is the diffuse irradiance, therefore, the bificail gain can be calculated in (2).

where $\propto $ is the bifaciality coefficient for ground-reflected irradiance, ${R}_{ground}$ is the ground albedo, $\beta $ is the bifaciality coefficient for sky-diffuse irradiance, and ${R}_{sky}$ is a factor representing the effective sky view factor affecting diffuse irradiance capture. The total amount of power output, ${P}_{modelled}$ , can then be calculated by (3). Where ${P}_{STC}$ is the power output under standard test conditions, ${\eta }_{conversion}$ is the conversion efficiency of the PV cells, and $FF$ is the fill factor.

To calibrate the model with respect to the ratio of diffuse to direct sunlight, we introduce weighting coefficients that adjust the impact of each component on the total irradiance. The calibration process involves optimizing these coefficients so that the model output matches measured data as closely as possible. This was achieved by adjusting, ${w}_{direct}$ and ${w}_{diffuse}$ , the weighting coefficients for direct and diffuse irradiance, respectively. And therefore, to find the total effective irradiance, ${I}_{effective}$ calculated using (4). The optimization process aims to find the values of ${w}_{direct}$ and ${w}_{diffuse}$ , that minimize the error between the modeled and measured power output. This was achieved using an Levenberg–Marquardt optimization algorithm 45 , which is suited for solving non-linear least squares problems 46 .

Figure 12 presents the outcomes of modelling bifacial gain versus irradiance over two distinct temporal scales: daily and hourly. In the top panel, showcasing daily data, we observe the daily bifacial gain plotted against the day of the year. The data points, marked in blue, display a degree of variability that seems to follow a seasonal trend, likely reflecting the sinusoidal nature of solar irradiance throughout the year. A polynomial model fit, depicted by the red dashed line, attempts to capture this underlying trend. The fit seems to trace the central tendency of the data but does not adhere closely to individual data points, reflecting in a mean model error of 3.71% and an RMSE of 0.07. These metrics suggest that while the model grasps the general pattern, there is room for improvement, particularly in capturing the daily variability.

Comparative analysis of bifacial gain vs. irradiance on daily and hourly basis. The top panel illustrates the variation and model fit of daily bifacial gain over a year, while the bottom panel depicts the hourly bifacial gain for a week. The polynomial model fits (red dashed line for daily data, orange dashed line for hourly data) highlight the challenge in capturing temporal dynamics in bifacial PV system performance.

The bottom panel of Fig. 12 displays the hourly data, where each green dot represents the hourly bifacial gain for a particular hour of the week. Here, the volatility is more pronounced, reflecting the more dynamic changes in irradiance that occur throughout the day. The hourly model fit, illustrated by the orange dashed line, shows considerable deviation from the actual data points, with a mean error of 9.61% and an RMSE of 0.19. This discrepancy indicates that the hourly variations in irradiance and corresponding bifacial gain are not adequately captured by the current model, suggesting a need for a more complex or different modeling approach for short-term predictions.

The environmental and economic implications of adopting VBPV systems on a large scale are multifaceted and far-reaching. Environmentally, the most significant impact would be the substantial reduction in carbon emissions. Solar power is a clean, renewable resource, and the increased efficiency of VBPV systems means that more electricity can be generated per unit area compared to traditional solar solutions. This increased efficiency is critical in densely populated or land-scarce regions where the optimization of limited space is essential. Furthermore, the dual-sided nature of bifacial panels captures reflected light, enhancing energy yield and reducing the need for additional land, which is crucial for preserving natural habitats and biodiversity. These findings are consistent with studies that highlight the environmental benefits of bifacial PV systems, such as reduced land use 47 and lower carbon footprint 48 .

From an economic standpoint, the adoption of VBPV systems could lead to substantial cost savings over time. Although the initial investment might be higher than traditional systems due to the advanced technology involved, the higher energy yield and efficiency of VBPV systems will likely result in lower long-term costs. According to recent studies, bifacial PV systems can provide a return on investment that is 20–30% higher compared to monofacial systems due to the additional energy captured from the rear side 47 , 48 . Additionally, the maintenance costs might be lower due to the vertical design, which is less prone to dirt accumulation and potential shading issues. This factor alone could make VBPV systems more economically viable, especially in regions where labour and maintenance costs are significant factors.

The findings of this study have profound implications for global renewable energy strategies. The enhanced efficiency of VBPV systems aligns well with the growing global emphasis on sustainable development and the urgent need to shift to renewable energy sources. Studies have demonstrated the viability of bifacial PV systems in various urban environments, highlighting their adaptability and high energy yield even in constrained spaces 47 . For instance, bifacial PV installations on building facades and rooftops have shown significant energy production benefits 49 , supporting the transition to more sustainable urban infrastructure. By demonstrating the potential of VBPV systems in diverse environmental settings, this technology could play a pivotal role in the transition to a low-carbon economy.

In terms of policy and planning, these findings could influence government and industry leaders to reconsider their investment strategies. Encouraging the adoption of VBPV technology in urban planning and building design could be a significant step towards achieving energy efficiency targets. The literature since 2018 has explored various aspects of bifacial PV systems, emphasizing their efficiency, cost-effectiveness, and integration into smart grids such 50 , 51 . Future research should focus on testing VBPV systems in a variety of geographical locations and environmental conditions to validate and extend these findings. Additionally, it would be beneficial to explore the integration of VBPV systems with other renewable energy technologies such as wind or hydroelectric power to create more robust and resilient energy systems.

The specific geographical location and environmental conditions of York, UK, where this study was conducted, play a significant role in the performance of VBPV systems. York experiences a temperate maritime climate, characterized by relatively mild temperatures throughout the year, moderate rainfall, and variable cloud cover. The average annual temperature is around 10°C, with average daylight hours ranging from approximately 5–7 h in winter to 14–16 h in summer. The sun angle in York varies significantly with the seasons, reaching a maximum elevation of about 62 degrees during the summer solstice and a minimum of approximately 15 degrees during the winter solstice. These climatic conditions and solar geometry are critical factors influencing the performance of VBPV systems, as they determine the amount of direct and diffuse irradiance received by the panels.

In summary, the environmental and economic potential of VBPV systems is significant, with the possibility to make a considerable impact on global renewable energy strategies. However, acknowledging and addressing the limitations of current research is crucial in advancing this technology and maximizing its benefits.

Conclusions

This pioneering study on the VBPV system marks a significant leap forward in the realm of solar energy technology. Our comprehensive year-long research at the University of York, UK, serves as the first in-depth exploration of this innovative concept, diverging from conventional solar panel installations. The VBPV system, with its vertical orientation and utilization of advanced HJT cells, has demonstrated exceptional performance, surpassing traditional solar solutions in efficiency and energy output.

Key findings of this study reveal the superior capability of the VBPV system compared to its counterparts. Notably, the system outperformed VMPV system, showing a 7.12% and 10.12% increase in daily power output during early morning and late afternoon periods. When compared to a traditional TMPV system, the VBPV system exhibited even more remarkable gains, with a 26.91% and 22.88% enhancement in energy output in similar time frames. Seasonal analysis further highlights the system's efficiency, with average power gains of 11.42% in spring, 8.13% in summer, 10.94% in autumn, and 12.45% in winter over the VMPV system. Against the TMPV system, these gains peaked at an impressive 24.52% in the winter months.

These findings underscore the VBPV system's unparalleled ability to harness solar energy efficiently, irrespective of seasonal variances. Its design not only maximizes land use but also integrates seamlessly with modern architectural landscapes, adding an aesthetic value to its functional benefits. The system's bifacial technology, capable of capturing solar radiation from both sides, significantly boosts its energy yield, making it a potent solution for regions with variable sun exposure and reflective environments.

In conclusion, the VBPV system emerges as a promising solution for the future of sustainable energy. Its innovative design, superior efficiency, and adaptability to various environmental conditions position it as an ideal candidate for widespread adoption in both urban and rural settings. This study paves the way for future research and development in photovoltaic technology, encouraging a shift towards more efficient, environmentally friendly, and architecturally integrated solar energy solutions. As the first paper to delve into this new PV technology and concept design, it lays a strong foundation for the evolution of solar energy systems, steering the industry towards a more sustainable and energy-efficient future.

Data availability

Data will be made available on reasonable request to the corresponding author of the paper.

Abbreviations

Computational fluid dynamics

Direct current

Heterojunction

Interdigitated Back Contact

National Renewable Energy Laboratory

Passivated Emitter and Rear Cell

Passivated Emitter Rear Locally Diffused

Passivated Emitter Rear Totally Diffused

Plane of Array

Photovoltaic

Root mean square error

Standard test conditions

Tilted monofacial photovoltaic

Vertical bifacial photovoltaic

Vertical monofacial photovoltaic

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Acknowledgements

This research was supported by the EPSRC IAA under the project "Next-Generation Vertically Mounted Bifacial Solar Panels: Conceptualization, Field Testing, and Energy Performance Monitoring." We are grateful for the industrial collaboration and financial backing provided by Over Easy Solar AS and the Norwegian Research Council. Special thanks are extended to Richard Armitage, Electrical Technician, and Andy White, Chief Engineer at the University of York, for their invaluable assistance with the installation of the VBPV system. Additionally, we acknowledge the OverEasy team, particularly Jørgen Wallerud and Trygve Mongstad, for their pivotal role in facilitating the acquisition and funding of this system in the UK.

EPSRC, Next-Generation Vertically Mounted Bifacial Solar Panels: Conceptualization, Field Testing, and Energy Performance Monitoring, Next-Generation Vertically Mounted Bifacial Solar Panels: Conceptualization, Field Testing, and Energy Performance Monitoring.

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Both authors discussed the organization and the content of the manuscript. G.B. performed the experiments, prepared figures, and wrote the main manuscript text. M.G validated the experimental results and revised the manuscript. Both authors have approved the manuscript before submission.

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Badran, G., Dhimish, M. Comprehensive study on the efficiency of vertical bifacial photovoltaic systems: a UK case study. Sci Rep 14 , 18380 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-68018-1

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