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Research methods--quantitative, qualitative, and more: overview.

• Quantitative Research
• Qualitative Research
• Data Science Methods (Machine Learning, AI, Big Data)
• Text Mining and Computational Text Analysis
• Evidence Synthesis/Systematic Reviews
• Get Data, Get Help!

About Research Methods

This guide provides an overview of research methods, how to choose and use them, and supports and resources at UC Berkeley. 

As Patten and Newhart note in the book Understanding Research Methods , "Research methods are the building blocks of the scientific enterprise. They are the "how" for building systematic knowledge. The accumulation of knowledge through research is by its nature a collective endeavor. Each well-designed study provides evidence that may support, amend, refute, or deepen the understanding of existing knowledge...Decisions are important throughout the practice of research and are designed to help researchers collect evidence that includes the full spectrum of the phenomenon under study, to maintain logical rules, and to mitigate or account for possible sources of bias. In many ways, learning research methods is learning how to see and make these decisions."

The choice of methods varies by discipline, by the kind of phenomenon being studied and the data being used to study it, by the technology available, and more.  This guide is an introduction, but if you don't see what you need here, always contact your subject librarian, and/or take a look to see if there's a library research guide that will answer your question. 

Suggestions for changes and additions to this guide are welcome! 

START HERE: SAGE Research Methods

Without question, the most comprehensive resource available from the library is SAGE Research Methods.  HERE IS THE ONLINE GUIDE  to this one-stop shopping collection, and some helpful links are below:

• SAGE Research Methods
• Little Green Books  (Quantitative Methods)
• Little Blue Books  (Qualitative Methods)
• Dictionaries and Encyclopedias  
• Case studies of real research projects
• Sample datasets for hands-on practice
• Streaming video--see methods come to life
• Methodspace- -a community for researchers
• SAGE Research Methods Course Mapping

Library Data Services at UC Berkeley

Library Data Services Program and Digital Scholarship Services

The LDSP offers a variety of services and tools !  From this link, check out pages for each of the following topics:  discovering data, managing data, collecting data, GIS data, text data mining, publishing data, digital scholarship, open science, and the Research Data Management Program.

Be sure also to check out the visual guide to where to seek assistance on campus with any research question you may have!

Library GIS Services

Other Data Services at Berkeley

D-Lab Supports Berkeley faculty, staff, and graduate students with research in data intensive social science, including a wide range of training and workshop offerings Dryad Dryad is a simple self-service tool for researchers to use in publishing their datasets. It provides tools for the effective publication of and access to research data. Geospatial Innovation Facility (GIF) Provides leadership and training across a broad array of integrated mapping technologies on campu Research Data Management A UC Berkeley guide and consulting service for research data management issues

General Research Methods Resources

Here are some general resources for assistance:

• Assistance from ICPSR (must create an account to access): Getting Help with Data , and Resources for Students
• Wiley Stats Ref for background information on statistics topics
• Survey Documentation and Analysis (SDA) .  Program for easy web-based analysis of survey data.

Consultants

• D-Lab/Data Science Discovery Consultants Request help with your research project from peer consultants.
• Research data (RDM) consulting Meet with RDM consultants before designing the data security, storage, and sharing aspects of your qualitative project.
• Statistics Department Consulting Services A service in which advanced graduate students, under faculty supervision, are available to consult during specified hours in the Fall and Spring semesters.

Related Resourcex

• IRB / CPHS Qualitative research projects with human subjects often require that you go through an ethics review.
• OURS (Office of Undergraduate Research and Scholarships) OURS supports undergraduates who want to embark on research projects and assistantships. In particular, check out their "Getting Started in Research" workshops
• Sponsored Projects Sponsored projects works with researchers applying for major external grants.
• Next: Quantitative Research >>
• Last Updated: Aug 6, 2024 3:06 PM
• URL: https://guides.lib.berkeley.edu/researchmethods

Community Blog

Keep up-to-date on postgraduate related issues with our quick reads written by students, postdocs, professors and industry leaders.

Types of Research – Explained with Examples

• By DiscoverPhDs
• October 2, 2020

Types of Research

Research is about using established methods to investigate a problem or question in detail with the aim of generating new knowledge about it.

It is a vital tool for scientific advancement because it allows researchers to prove or refute hypotheses based on clearly defined parameters, environments and assumptions. Due to this, it enables us to confidently contribute to knowledge as it allows research to be verified and replicated.

Knowing the types of research and what each of them focuses on will allow you to better plan your project, utilises the most appropriate methodologies and techniques and better communicate your findings to other researchers and supervisors.

Classification of Types of Research

There are various types of research that are classified according to their objective, depth of study, analysed data, time required to study the phenomenon and other factors. It’s important to note that a research project will not be limited to one type of research, but will likely use several.

According to its Purpose

Theoretical research.

Theoretical research, also referred to as pure or basic research, focuses on generating knowledge , regardless of its practical application. Here, data collection is used to generate new general concepts for a better understanding of a particular field or to answer a theoretical research question.

Results of this kind are usually oriented towards the formulation of theories and are usually based on documentary analysis, the development of mathematical formulas and the reflection of high-level researchers.

Applied Research

Here, the goal is to find strategies that can be used to address a specific research problem. Applied research draws on theory to generate practical scientific knowledge, and its use is very common in STEM fields such as engineering, computer science and medicine.

This type of research is subdivided into two types:

• Technological applied research : looks towards improving efficiency in a particular productive sector through the improvement of processes or machinery related to said productive processes.
• Scientific applied research : has predictive purposes. Through this type of research design, we can measure certain variables to predict behaviours useful to the goods and services sector, such as consumption patterns and viability of commercial projects.

According to your Depth of Scope

Exploratory research.

Exploratory research is used for the preliminary investigation of a subject that is not yet well understood or sufficiently researched. It serves to establish a frame of reference and a hypothesis from which an in-depth study can be developed that will enable conclusive results to be generated.

Because exploratory research is based on the study of little-studied phenomena, it relies less on theory and more on the collection of data to identify patterns that explain these phenomena.

Descriptive Research

The primary objective of descriptive research is to define the characteristics of a particular phenomenon without necessarily investigating the causes that produce it.

In this type of research, the researcher must take particular care not to intervene in the observed object or phenomenon, as its behaviour may change if an external factor is involved.

Explanatory Research

Explanatory research is the most common type of research method and is responsible for establishing cause-and-effect relationships that allow generalisations to be extended to similar realities. It is closely related to descriptive research, although it provides additional information about the observed object and its interactions with the environment.

Correlational Research

The purpose of this type of scientific research is to identify the relationship between two or more variables. A correlational study aims to determine whether a variable changes, how much the other elements of the observed system change.

According to the Type of Data Used

Qualitative research.

Qualitative methods are often used in the social sciences to collect, compare and interpret information, has a linguistic-semiotic basis and is used in techniques such as discourse analysis, interviews, surveys, records and participant observations.

In order to use statistical methods to validate their results, the observations collected must be evaluated numerically. Qualitative research, however, tends to be subjective, since not all data can be fully controlled. Therefore, this type of research design is better suited to extracting meaning from an event or phenomenon (the ‘why’) than its cause (the ‘how’).

Quantitative Research

Quantitative research study delves into a phenomena through quantitative data collection and using mathematical, statistical and computer-aided tools to measure them . This allows generalised conclusions to be projected over time.

According to the Degree of Manipulation of Variables

Experimental research.

It is about designing or replicating a phenomenon whose variables are manipulated under strictly controlled conditions in order to identify or discover its effect on another independent variable or object. The phenomenon to be studied is measured through study and control groups, and according to the guidelines of the scientific method.

Non-Experimental Research

Also known as an observational study, it focuses on the analysis of a phenomenon in its natural context. As such, the researcher does not intervene directly, but limits their involvement to measuring the variables required for the study. Due to its observational nature, it is often used in descriptive research.

Quasi-Experimental Research

It controls only some variables of the phenomenon under investigation and is therefore not entirely experimental. In this case, the study and the focus group cannot be randomly selected, but are chosen from existing groups or populations . This is to ensure the collected data is relevant and that the knowledge, perspectives and opinions of the population can be incorporated into the study.

According to the Type of Inference

Deductive investigation.

In this type of research, reality is explained by general laws that point to certain conclusions; conclusions are expected to be part of the premise of the research problem and considered correct if the premise is valid and the inductive method is applied correctly.

Inductive Research

In this type of research, knowledge is generated from an observation to achieve a generalisation. It is based on the collection of specific data to develop new theories.

Hypothetical-Deductive Investigation

It is based on observing reality to make a hypothesis, then use deduction to obtain a conclusion and finally verify or reject it through experience.

According to the Time in Which it is Carried Out

Longitudinal study (also referred to as diachronic research).

It is the monitoring of the same event, individual or group over a defined period of time. It aims to track changes in a number of variables and see how they evolve over time. It is often used in medical, psychological and social areas .

Cross-Sectional Study (also referred to as Synchronous Research)

Cross-sectional research design is used to observe phenomena, an individual or a group of research subjects at a given time.

According to The Sources of Information

Primary research.

This fundamental research type is defined by the fact that the data is collected directly from the source, that is, it consists of primary, first-hand information.

Secondary research

Unlike primary research, secondary research is developed with information from secondary sources, which are generally based on scientific literature and other documents compiled by another researcher.

According to How the Data is Obtained

Documentary (cabinet).

Documentary research, or secondary sources, is based on a systematic review of existing sources of information on a particular subject. This type of scientific research is commonly used when undertaking literature reviews or producing a case study.

Field research study involves the direct collection of information at the location where the observed phenomenon occurs.

From Laboratory

Laboratory research is carried out in a controlled environment in order to isolate a dependent variable and establish its relationship with other variables through scientific methods.

Mixed-Method: Documentary, Field and/or Laboratory

Mixed research methodologies combine results from both secondary (documentary) sources and primary sources through field or laboratory research.

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• Methodology

Research Methods | Definition, Types, Examples

Research methods are specific procedures for collecting and analysing data. Developing your research methods is an integral part of your research design . When planning your methods, there are two key decisions you will make.

First, decide how you will collect data . Your methods depend on what type of data you need to answer your research question :

• Qualitative vs quantitative : Will your data take the form of words or numbers?
• Primary vs secondary : Will you collect original data yourself, or will you use data that have already been collected by someone else?
• Descriptive vs experimental : Will you take measurements of something as it is, or will you perform an experiment?

Second, decide how you will analyse the data .

• For quantitative data, you can use statistical analysis methods to test relationships between variables.
• For qualitative data, you can use methods such as thematic analysis to interpret patterns and meanings in the data.

Table of contents

Methods for collecting data, examples of data collection methods, methods for analysing data, examples of data analysis methods, frequently asked questions about methodology.

Data are the information that you collect for the purposes of answering your research question . The type of data you need depends on the aims of your research.

Qualitative vs quantitative data

Your choice of qualitative or quantitative data collection depends on the type of knowledge you want to develop.

For questions about ideas, experiences and meanings, or to study something that can’t be described numerically, collect qualitative data .

If you want to develop a more mechanistic understanding of a topic, or your research involves hypothesis testing , collect quantitative data .

You can also take a mixed methods approach, where you use both qualitative and quantitative research methods.

Primary vs secondary data

Primary data are any original information that you collect for the purposes of answering your research question (e.g. through surveys , observations and experiments ). Secondary data are information that has already been collected by other researchers (e.g. in a government census or previous scientific studies).

If you are exploring a novel research question, you’ll probably need to collect primary data. But if you want to synthesise existing knowledge, analyse historical trends, or identify patterns on a large scale, secondary data might be a better choice.

Descriptive vs experimental data

In descriptive research , you collect data about your study subject without intervening. The validity of your research will depend on your sampling method .

In experimental research , you systematically intervene in a process and measure the outcome. The validity of your research will depend on your experimental design .

To conduct an experiment, you need to be able to vary your independent variable , precisely measure your dependent variable, and control for confounding variables . If it’s practically and ethically possible, this method is the best choice for answering questions about cause and effect.

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Your data analysis methods will depend on the type of data you collect and how you prepare them for analysis.

Data can often be analysed both quantitatively and qualitatively. For example, survey responses could be analysed qualitatively by studying the meanings of responses or quantitatively by studying the frequencies of responses.

Qualitative analysis methods

Qualitative analysis is used to understand words, ideas, and experiences. You can use it to interpret data that were collected:

• From open-ended survey and interview questions, literature reviews, case studies, and other sources that use text rather than numbers.
• Using non-probability sampling methods .

Qualitative analysis tends to be quite flexible and relies on the researcher’s judgement, so you have to reflect carefully on your choices and assumptions.

Quantitative analysis methods

Quantitative analysis uses numbers and statistics to understand frequencies, averages and correlations (in descriptive studies) or cause-and-effect relationships (in experiments).

You can use quantitative analysis to interpret data that were collected either:

• During an experiment.
• Using probability sampling methods .

Because the data are collected and analysed in a statistically valid way, the results of quantitative analysis can be easily standardised and shared among researchers.

Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.

Quantitative methods allow you to test a hypothesis by systematically collecting and analysing data, while qualitative methods allow you to explore ideas and experiences in depth.

In mixed methods research , you use both qualitative and quantitative data collection and analysis methods to answer your research question .

A sample is a subset of individuals from a larger population. Sampling means selecting the group that you will actually collect data from in your research.

For example, if you are researching the opinions of students in your university, you could survey a sample of 100 students.

Statistical sampling allows you to test a hypothesis about the characteristics of a population. There are various sampling methods you can use to ensure that your sample is representative of the population as a whole.

The research methods you use depend on the type of data you need to answer your research question .

• If you want to measure something or test a hypothesis , use quantitative methods . If you want to explore ideas, thoughts, and meanings, use qualitative methods .
• If you want to analyse a large amount of readily available data, use secondary data. If you want data specific to your purposes with control over how they are generated, collect primary data.
• If you want to establish cause-and-effect relationships between variables , use experimental methods. If you want to understand the characteristics of a research subject, use descriptive methods.

Methodology refers to the overarching strategy and rationale of your research project . It involves studying the methods used in your field and the theories or principles behind them, in order to develop an approach that matches your objectives.

Methods are the specific tools and procedures you use to collect and analyse data (e.g. experiments, surveys , and statistical tests ).

In shorter scientific papers, where the aim is to report the findings of a specific study, you might simply describe what you did in a methods section .

In a longer or more complex research project, such as a thesis or dissertation , you will probably include a methodology section , where you explain your approach to answering the research questions and cite relevant sources to support your choice of methods.

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Educational resources and simple solutions for your research journey

What is Research? Definition, Types, Methods, and Examples

Academic research is a methodical way of exploring new ideas or understanding things we already know. It involves gathering and studying information to answer questions or test ideas and requires careful thinking and persistence to reach meaningful conclusions. Let’s try to understand what research is.   

Table of Contents

Why is research important?    

Whether it’s doing experiments, analyzing data, or studying old documents, research helps us learn more about the world. Without it, we rely on guesswork and hearsay, often leading to mistakes and misconceptions. By using systematic methods, research helps us see things clearly, free from biases. (1)   

What is the purpose of research?  

In the real world, academic research is also a key driver of innovation. It brings many benefits, such as creating valuable opportunities and fostering partnerships between academia and industry. By turning research into products and services, science makes meaningful improvements to people’s lives and boosts the economy. (2)(3)  

What are the characteristics of research?    

The research process collects accurate information systematically. Logic is used to analyze the collected data and find insights. Checking the collected data thoroughly ensures accuracy. Research also leads to new questions using existing data.   

Accuracy is key in research, which requires precise data collection and analysis. In scientific research, laboratories ensure accuracy by carefully calibrating instruments and controlling experiments. Every step is checked to maintain integrity, from instruments to final results. Accuracy gives reliable insights, which in turn help advance knowledge.   

Types of research    

The different forms of research serve distinct purposes in expanding knowledge and understanding:    

• Exploratory research ventures into uncharted territories, exploring new questions or problem areas without aiming for conclusive answers. For instance, a study may delve into unexplored market segments to better understand consumer behaviour patterns.   
• Descriptive research delves into current issues by collecting and analyzing data to describe the behaviour of a sample population. For instance, a survey may investigate millennials’ spending habits to gain insights into their purchasing behaviours.   
• Explanatory research, also known as causal research, seeks to understand the impact of specific changes in existing procedures. An example might be a study examining how changes in drug dosage over some time improve patients’ health.   
• Correlational research examines connections between two sets of data to uncover meaningful relationships. For instance, a study may analyze the relationship between advertising spending and sales revenue.   
• Theoretical research deepens existing knowledge without attempting to solve specific problems. For example, a study may explore theoretical frameworks to understand the underlying principles of human behaviour.   
• Applied research focuses on real-world issues and aims to provide practical solutions. An example could be a study investigating the effectiveness of a new teaching method in improving student performance in schools.  (4)

Types of research methods

• Qualitative Method: Qualitative research gathers non-numerical data through interactions with participants. Methods include one-to-one interviews, focus groups, ethnographic studies, text analysis, and case studies. For example, a researcher interviews cancer patients to understand how different treatments impact their lives emotionally.    
• Quantitative Method: Quantitative methods deal with numbers and measurable data to understand relationships between variables. They use systematic methods to investigate events and aim to explain or predict outcomes. For example, Researchers study how exercise affects heart health by measuring variables like heart rate and blood pressure in a large group before and after an exercise program. (5)  

Basic steps involved in the research process    

Here are the basic steps to help you understand the research process:   

• Choose your topic: Decide the specific subject or area that you want to study and investigate. This decision is the foundation of your research journey.   
• Find information: Look for information related to your research topic. You can search in journals, books, online, or ask experts for help.   
• Assess your sources: Make sure the information you find is reliable and trustworthy. Check the author’s credentials and the publication date.   
• Take notes: Write down important information from your sources that you can use in your research.   
• Write your paper: Use your notes to write your research paper. Broadly, start with an introduction, then write the body of your paper, and finish with a conclusion.   
• Cite your sources: Give credit to the sources you used by including citations in your paper.   
• Proofread: Check your paper thoroughly for any errors in spelling, grammar, or punctuation before you submit it. (6)

How to ensure research accuracy?  

Ensuring accuracy in research is a mix of several essential steps:    

• Clarify goals: Start by defining clear objectives for your research. Identify your research question, hypothesis, and variables of interest. This clarity will help guide your data collection and analysis methods, ensuring that your research stays focused and purposeful.   
• Use reliable data: Select trustworthy sources for your information, whether they are primary data collected by you or secondary data obtained from other sources. For example, if you’re studying climate change, use data from reputable scientific organizations with transparent methodologies.   
• Validate data: Validate your data to ensure it meets the standards of your research project. Check for errors, outliers, and inconsistencies at different stages, such as during data collection, entry, cleaning, or analysis.    
• Document processes: Documenting your data collection and analysis processes is essential for transparency and reproducibility. Record details such as data collection methods, cleaning procedures, and analysis techniques used. This documentation not only helps you keep track of your research but also enables others to understand and replicate your work.   
• Review results: Finally, review and verify your research findings to confirm their accuracy and reliability. Double-check your analyses, cross-reference your data, and seek feedback from peers or supervisors. (7) 

Research is crucial for better understanding our world and for social and economic growth. By following ethical guidelines and ensuring accuracy, researchers play a critical role in driving this progress, whether through exploring new topics or deepening existing knowledge.   

References:  

• Why is Research Important – Introductory Psychology – Washington State University  
• The Role Of Scientific Research In Driving Business Innovation – Forbes  
• Innovation – Royal Society  
• Types of Research – Definition & Methods – Bachelor Print  
• What Is Qualitative vs. Quantitative Study? – National University  
• Basic Steps in the Research Process – North Hennepin Community College  
• Best Practices for Ensuring Data Accuracy in Research – LinkedIn  

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What is Research: Definition, Methods, Types & Examples

The search for knowledge is closely linked to the object of study; that is, to the reconstruction of the facts that will provide an explanation to an observed event and that at first sight can be considered as a problem. It is very human to seek answers and satisfy our curiosity. Let’s talk about research.

Content Index

What is Research?

What are the characteristics of research.

• Comparative analysis chart

Qualitative methods

Quantitative methods, 8 tips for conducting accurate research.

Research is the careful consideration of study regarding a particular concern or research problem using scientific methods. According to the American sociologist Earl Robert Babbie, “research is a systematic inquiry to describe, explain, predict, and control the observed phenomenon. It involves inductive and deductive methods.”

Inductive methods analyze an observed event, while deductive methods verify the observed event. Inductive approaches are associated with qualitative research , and deductive methods are more commonly associated with quantitative analysis .

Research is conducted with a purpose to:

• Identify potential and new customers
• Understand existing customers
• Set pragmatic goals
• Develop productive market strategies
• Address business challenges
• Put together a business expansion plan
• Identify new business opportunities
• Good research follows a systematic approach to capture accurate data. Researchers need to practice ethics and a code of conduct while making observations or drawing conclusions.
• The analysis is based on logical reasoning and involves both inductive and deductive methods.
• Real-time data and knowledge is derived from actual observations in natural settings.
• There is an in-depth analysis of all data collected so that there are no anomalies associated with it.
• It creates a path for generating new questions. Existing data helps create more research opportunities.
• It is analytical and uses all the available data so that there is no ambiguity in inference.
• Accuracy is one of the most critical aspects of research. The information must be accurate and correct. For example, laboratories provide a controlled environment to collect data. Accuracy is measured in the instruments used, the calibrations of instruments or tools, and the experiment’s final result.

What is the purpose of research?

There are three main purposes:

• Exploratory: As the name suggests, researchers conduct exploratory studies to explore a group of questions. The answers and analytics may not offer a conclusion to the perceived problem. It is undertaken to handle new problem areas that haven’t been explored before. This exploratory data analysis process lays the foundation for more conclusive data collection and analysis.

LEARN ABOUT: Descriptive Analysis

• Descriptive: It focuses on expanding knowledge on current issues through a process of data collection. Descriptive research describe the behavior of a sample population. Only one variable is required to conduct the study. The three primary purposes of descriptive studies are describing, explaining, and validating the findings. For example, a study conducted to know if top-level management leaders in the 21st century possess the moral right to receive a considerable sum of money from the company profit.

LEARN ABOUT: Best Data Collection Tools

• Explanatory: Causal research or explanatory research is conducted to understand the impact of specific changes in existing standard procedures. Running experiments is the most popular form. For example, a study that is conducted to understand the effect of rebranding on customer loyalty.

Here is a comparative analysis chart for a better understanding:

It begins by asking the right questions and choosing an appropriate method to investigate the problem. After collecting answers to your questions, you can analyze the findings or observations to draw reasonable conclusions.

When it comes to customers and market studies, the more thorough your questions, the better the analysis. You get essential insights into brand perception and product needs by thoroughly collecting customer data through surveys and questionnaires . You can use this data to make smart decisions about your marketing strategies to position your business effectively.

To make sense of your study and get insights faster, it helps to use a research repository as a single source of truth in your organization and manage your research data in one centralized data repository .

Types of research methods and Examples

Research methods are broadly classified as Qualitative and Quantitative .

Both methods have distinctive properties and data collection methods .

Qualitative research is a method that collects data using conversational methods, usually open-ended questions . The responses collected are essentially non-numerical. This method helps a researcher understand what participants think and why they think in a particular way.

Types of qualitative methods include:

• One-to-one Interview
• Focus Groups
• Ethnographic studies
• Text Analysis

Quantitative methods deal with numbers and measurable forms . It uses a systematic way of investigating events or data. It answers questions to justify relationships with measurable variables to either explain, predict, or control a phenomenon.

Types of quantitative methods include:

• Survey research
• Descriptive research
• Correlational research

LEARN MORE: Descriptive Research vs Correlational Research

Remember, it is only valuable and useful when it is valid, accurate, and reliable. Incorrect results can lead to customer churn and a decrease in sales.

It is essential to ensure that your data is:

• Valid – founded, logical, rigorous, and impartial.
• Accurate – free of errors and including required details.
• Reliable – other people who investigate in the same way can produce similar results.
• Timely – current and collected within an appropriate time frame.
• Complete – includes all the data you need to support your business decisions.

Gather insights

• Identify the main trends and issues, opportunities, and problems you observe. Write a sentence describing each one.
• Keep track of the frequency with which each of the main findings appears.
• Make a list of your findings from the most common to the least common.
• Evaluate a list of the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats identified in a SWOT analysis .
• Prepare conclusions and recommendations about your study.
• Act on your strategies
• Look for gaps in the information, and consider doing additional inquiry if necessary
• Plan to review the results and consider efficient methods to analyze and interpret results.

Review your goals before making any conclusions about your study. Remember how the process you have completed and the data you have gathered help answer your questions. Ask yourself if what your analysis revealed facilitates the identification of your conclusions and recommendations.

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15 Types of Research Methods

Chris Drew (PhD)

Dr. Chris Drew is the founder of the Helpful Professor. He holds a PhD in education and has published over 20 articles in scholarly journals. He is the former editor of the Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education. [Image Descriptor: Photo of Chris]

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Research methods refer to the strategies, tools, and techniques used to gather and analyze data in a structured way in order to answer a research question or investigate a hypothesis (Hammond & Wellington, 2020).

Generally, we place research methods into two categories: quantitative and qualitative. Each has its own strengths and weaknesses, which we can summarize as:

• Quantitative research can achieve generalizability through scrupulous statistical analysis applied to large sample sizes.
• Qualitative research achieves deep, detailed, and nuance accounts of specific case studies, which are not generalizable.

Some researchers, with the aim of making the most of both quantitative and qualitative research, employ mixed methods, whereby they will apply both types of research methods in the one study, such as by conducting a statistical survey alongside in-depth interviews to add context to the quantitative findings.

Below, I’ll outline 15 common research methods, and include pros, cons, and examples of each .

Types of Research Methods

Research methods can be broadly categorized into two types: quantitative and qualitative.

• Quantitative methods involve systematic empirical investigation of observable phenomena via statistical, mathematical, or computational techniques, providing an in-depth understanding of a specific concept or phenomenon (Schweigert, 2021). The strengths of this approach include its ability to produce reliable results that can be generalized to a larger population, although it can lack depth and detail.
• Qualitative methods encompass techniques that are designed to provide a deep understanding of a complex issue, often in a specific context, through collection of non-numerical data (Tracy, 2019). This approach often provides rich, detailed insights but can be time-consuming and its findings may not be generalizable.

These can be further broken down into a range of specific research methods and designs:

Combining the two methods above, mixed methods research mixes elements of both qualitative and quantitative research methods, providing a comprehensive understanding of the research problem . We can further break these down into:

• Sequential Explanatory Design (QUAN→QUAL): This methodology involves conducting quantitative analysis first, then supplementing it with a qualitative study.
• Sequential Exploratory Design (QUAL→QUAN): This methodology goes in the other direction, starting with qualitative analysis and ending with quantitative analysis.

Let’s explore some methods and designs from both quantitative and qualitative traditions, starting with qualitative research methods.

Qualitative Research Methods

Qualitative research methods allow for the exploration of phenomena in their natural settings, providing detailed, descriptive responses and insights into individuals’ experiences and perceptions (Howitt, 2019).

These methods are useful when a detailed understanding of a phenomenon is sought.

1. Ethnographic Research

Ethnographic research emerged out of anthropological research, where anthropologists would enter into a setting for a sustained period of time, getting to know a cultural group and taking detailed observations.

Ethnographers would sometimes even act as participants in the group or culture, which many scholars argue is a weakness because it is a step away from achieving objectivity (Stokes & Wall, 2017).

In fact, at its most extreme version, ethnographers even conduct research on themselves, in a fascinating methodology call autoethnography .

The purpose is to understand the culture, social structure, and the behaviors of the group under study. It is often useful when researchers seek to understand shared cultural meanings and practices in their natural settings.

However, it can be time-consuming and may reflect researcher biases due to the immersion approach.

Example of Ethnography

Liquidated: An Ethnography of Wall Street  by Karen Ho involves an anthropologist who embeds herself with Wall Street firms to study the culture of Wall Street bankers and how this culture affects the broader economy and world.

2. Phenomenological Research

Phenomenological research is a qualitative method focused on the study of individual experiences from the participant’s perspective (Tracy, 2019).

It focuses specifically on people’s experiences in relation to a specific social phenomenon ( see here for examples of social phenomena ).

This method is valuable when the goal is to understand how individuals perceive, experience, and make meaning of particular phenomena. However, because it is subjective and dependent on participants’ self-reports, findings may not be generalizable, and are highly reliant on self-reported ‘thoughts and feelings’.

Example of Phenomenological Research

A phenomenological approach to experiences with technology  by Sebnem Cilesiz represents a good starting-point for formulating a phenomenological study. With its focus on the ‘essence of experience’, this piece presents methodological, reliability, validity, and data analysis techniques that phenomenologists use to explain how people experience technology in their everyday lives.

3. Historical Research

Historical research is a qualitative method involving the examination of past events to draw conclusions about the present or make predictions about the future (Stokes & Wall, 2017).

As you might expect, it’s common in the research branches of history departments in universities.

This approach is useful in studies that seek to understand the past to interpret present events or trends. However, it relies heavily on the availability and reliability of source materials, which may be limited.

Common data sources include cultural artifacts from both material and non-material culture , which are then examined, compared, contrasted, and contextualized to test hypotheses and generate theories.

Example of Historical Research

A historical research example might be a study examining the evolution of gender roles over the last century. This research might involve the analysis of historical newspapers, advertisements, letters, and company documents, as well as sociocultural contexts.

4. Content Analysis

Content analysis is a research method that involves systematic and objective coding and interpreting of text or media to identify patterns, themes, ideologies, or biases (Schweigert, 2021).

A content analysis is useful in analyzing communication patterns, helping to reveal how texts such as newspapers, movies, films, political speeches, and other types of ‘content’ contain narratives and biases.

However, interpretations can be very subjective, which often requires scholars to engage in practices such as cross-comparing their coding with peers or external researchers.

Content analysis can be further broken down in to other specific methodologies such as semiotic analysis, multimodal analysis , and discourse analysis .

Example of Content Analysis

How is Islam Portrayed in Western Media?  by Poorebrahim and Zarei (2013) employs a type of content analysis called critical discourse analysis (common in poststructuralist and critical theory research ). This study by Poorebrahum and Zarei combs through a corpus of western media texts to explore the language forms that are used in relation to Islam and Muslims, finding that they are overly stereotyped, which may represent anti-Islam bias or failure to understand the Islamic world.

5. Grounded Theory Research

Grounded theory involves developing a theory  during and after  data collection rather than beforehand.

This is in contrast to most academic research studies, which start with a hypothesis or theory and then testing of it through a study, where we might have a null hypothesis (disproving the theory) and an alternative hypothesis (supporting the theory).

Grounded Theory is useful because it keeps an open mind to what the data might reveal out of the research. It can be time-consuming and requires rigorous data analysis (Tracy, 2019).

Grounded Theory Example

Developing a Leadership Identity   by Komives et al (2005) employs a grounded theory approach to develop a thesis based on the data rather than testing a hypothesis. The researchers studied the leadership identity of 13 college students taking on leadership roles. Based on their interviews, the researchers theorized that the students’ leadership identities shifted from a hierarchical view of leadership to one that embraced leadership as a collaborative concept.

6. Action Research

Action research is an approach which aims to solve real-world problems and bring about change within a setting. The study is designed to solve a specific problem – or in other words, to take action (Patten, 2017).

This approach can involve mixed methods, but is generally qualitative because it usually involves the study of a specific case study wherein the researcher works, e.g. a teacher studying their own classroom practice to seek ways they can improve.

Action research is very common in fields like education and nursing where practitioners identify areas for improvement then implement a study in order to find paths forward.

Action Research Example

Using Digital Sandbox Gaming to Improve Creativity Within Boys’ Writing   by Ellison and Drew was a research study one of my research students completed in his own classroom under my supervision. He implemented a digital game-based approach to literacy teaching with boys and interviewed his students to see if the use of games as stimuli for storytelling helped draw them into the learning experience.

7. Natural Observational Research

Observational research can also be quantitative (see: experimental research), but in naturalistic settings for the social sciences, researchers tend to employ qualitative data collection methods like interviews and field notes to observe people in their day-to-day environments.

This approach involves the observation and detailed recording of behaviors in their natural settings (Howitt, 2019). It can provide rich, in-depth information, but the researcher’s presence might influence behavior.

While observational research has some overlaps with ethnography (especially in regard to data collection techniques), it tends not to be as sustained as ethnography, e.g. a researcher might do 5 observations, every second Monday, as opposed to being embedded in an environment.

Observational Research Example

A researcher might use qualitative observational research to study the behaviors and interactions of children at a playground. The researcher would document the behaviors observed, such as the types of games played, levels of cooperation , and instances of conflict.

8. Case Study Research

Case study research is a qualitative method that involves a deep and thorough investigation of a single individual, group, or event in order to explore facets of that phenomenon that cannot be captured using other methods (Stokes & Wall, 2017).

Case study research is especially valuable in providing contextualized insights into specific issues, facilitating the application of abstract theories to real-world situations (Patten, 2017).

However, findings from a case study may not be generalizable due to the specific context and the limited number of cases studied (Walliman, 2021).

See More: Case Study Advantages and Disadvantages

Example of a Case Study

Scholars conduct a detailed exploration of the implementation of a new teaching method within a classroom setting. The study focuses on how the teacher and students adapt to the new method, the challenges encountered, and the outcomes on student performance and engagement. While the study provides specific and detailed insights of the teaching method in that classroom, it cannot be generalized to other classrooms, as statistical significance has not been established through this qualitative approach.

Quantitative Research Methods

Quantitative research methods involve the systematic empirical investigation of observable phenomena via statistical, mathematical, or computational techniques (Pajo, 2022). The focus is on gathering numerical data and generalizing it across groups of people or to explain a particular phenomenon.

9. Experimental Research

Experimental research is a quantitative method where researchers manipulate one variable to determine its effect on another (Walliman, 2021).

This is common, for example, in high-school science labs, where students are asked to introduce a variable into a setting in order to examine its effect.

This type of research is useful in situations where researchers want to determine causal relationships between variables. However, experimental conditions may not reflect real-world conditions.

Example of Experimental Research

A researcher may conduct an experiment to determine the effects of a new educational approach on student learning outcomes. Students would be randomly assigned to either the control group (traditional teaching method) or the experimental group (new educational approach).

10. Surveys and Questionnaires

Surveys and questionnaires are quantitative methods that involve asking research participants structured and predefined questions to collect data about their attitudes, beliefs, behaviors, or characteristics (Patten, 2017).

Surveys are beneficial for collecting data from large samples, but they depend heavily on the honesty and accuracy of respondents.

They tend to be seen as more authoritative than their qualitative counterparts, semi-structured interviews, because the data is quantifiable (e.g. a questionnaire where information is presented on a scale from 1 to 10 can allow researchers to determine and compare statistical means, averages, and variations across sub-populations in the study).

Example of a Survey Study

A company might use a survey to gather data about employee job satisfaction across its offices worldwide. Employees would be asked to rate various aspects of their job satisfaction on a Likert scale. While this method provides a broad overview, it may lack the depth of understanding possible with other methods (Stokes & Wall, 2017).

11. Longitudinal Studies

Longitudinal studies involve repeated observations of the same variables over extended periods (Howitt, 2019). These studies are valuable for tracking development and change but can be costly and time-consuming.

With multiple data points collected over extended periods, it’s possible to examine continuous changes within things like population dynamics or consumer behavior. This makes a detailed analysis of change possible.

Perhaps the most relatable example of a longitudinal study is a national census, which is taken on the same day every few years, to gather comparative demographic data that can show how a nation is changing over time.

While longitudinal studies are commonly quantitative, there are also instances of qualitative ones as well, such as the famous 7 Up study from the UK, which studies 14 individuals every 7 years to explore their development over their lives.

Example of a Longitudinal Study

A national census, taken every few years, uses surveys to develop longitudinal data, which is then compared and analyzed to present accurate trends over time. Trends a census can reveal include changes in religiosity, values and attitudes on social issues, and much more.

12. Cross-Sectional Studies

Cross-sectional studies are a quantitative research method that involves analyzing data from a population at a specific point in time (Patten, 2017). They provide a snapshot of a situation but cannot determine causality.

This design is used to measure and compare the prevalence of certain characteristics or outcomes in different groups within the sampled population.

The major advantage of cross-sectional design is its ability to measure a wide range of variables simultaneously without needing to follow up with participants over time.

However, cross-sectional studies do have limitations . This design can only show if there are associations or correlations between different variables, but cannot prove cause and effect relationships, temporal sequence, changes, and trends over time.

Example of a Cross-Sectional Study

Our longitudinal study example of a national census also happens to contain cross-sectional design. One census is cross-sectional, displaying only data from one point in time. But when a census is taken once every few years, it becomes longitudinal, and so long as the data collection technique remains unchanged, identification of changes will be achievable, adding another time dimension on top of a basic cross-sectional study.

13. Correlational Research

Correlational research is a quantitative method that seeks to determine if and to what degree a relationship exists between two or more quantifiable variables (Schweigert, 2021).

This approach provides a fast and easy way to make initial hypotheses based on either positive or  negative correlation trends  that can be observed within dataset.

While correlational research can reveal relationships between variables, it cannot establish causality.

Methods used for data analysis may include statistical correlations such as Pearson’s or Spearman’s.

Example of Correlational Research

A team of researchers is interested in studying the relationship between the amount of time students spend studying and their academic performance. They gather data from a high school, measuring the number of hours each student studies per week and their grade point averages (GPAs) at the end of the semester. Upon analyzing the data, they find a positive correlation, suggesting that students who spend more time studying tend to have higher GPAs.

14. Quasi-Experimental Design Research

Quasi-experimental design research is a quantitative research method that is similar to experimental design but lacks the element of random assignment to treatment or control.

Instead, quasi-experimental designs typically rely on certain other methods to control for extraneous variables.

The term ‘quasi-experimental’ implies that the experiment resembles a true experiment, but it is not exactly the same because it doesn’t meet all the criteria for a ‘true’ experiment, specifically in terms of control and random assignment.

Quasi-experimental design is useful when researchers want to study a causal hypothesis or relationship, but practical or ethical considerations prevent them from manipulating variables and randomly assigning participants to conditions.

Example of Quasi-Experimental Design

A researcher wants to study the impact of a new math tutoring program on student performance. However, ethical and practical constraints prevent random assignment to the “tutoring” and “no tutoring” groups. Instead, the researcher compares students who chose to receive tutoring (experimental group) to similar students who did not choose to receive tutoring (control group), controlling for other variables like grade level and previous math performance.

Related: Examples and Types of Random Assignment in Research

15. Meta-Analysis Research

Meta-analysis statistically combines the results of multiple studies on a specific topic to yield a more precise estimate of the effect size. It’s the gold standard of secondary research .

Meta-analysis is particularly useful when there are numerous studies on a topic, and there is a need to integrate the findings to draw more reliable conclusions.

Some meta-analyses can identify flaws or gaps in a corpus of research, when can be highly influential in academic research, despite lack of primary data collection.

However, they tend only to be feasible when there is a sizable corpus of high-quality and reliable studies into a phenomenon.

Example of a Meta-Analysis

The power of feedback revisited (Wisniewski, Zierer & Hattie, 2020) is a meta-analysis that examines 435 empirical studies research on the effects of feedback on student learning. They use a random-effects model to ascertain whether there is a clear effect size across the literature. The authors find that feedback tends to impact cognitive and motor skill outcomes but has less of an effect on motivational and behavioral outcomes.

Choosing a research method requires a lot of consideration regarding what you want to achieve, your research paradigm, and the methodology that is most valuable for what you are studying. There are multiple types of research methods, many of which I haven’t been able to present here. Generally, it’s recommended that you work with an experienced researcher or research supervisor to identify a suitable research method for your study at hand.

Hammond, M., & Wellington, J. (2020). Research methods: The key concepts . New York: Routledge.

Howitt, D. (2019). Introduction to qualitative research methods in psychology . London: Pearson UK.

Pajo, B. (2022). Introduction to research methods: A hands-on approach . New York: Sage Publications.

Patten, M. L. (2017). Understanding research methods: An overview of the essentials . New York: Sage

Schweigert, W. A. (2021). Research methods in psychology: A handbook . Los Angeles: Waveland Press.

Stokes, P., & Wall, T. (2017). Research methods . New York: Bloomsbury Publishing.

Tracy, S. J. (2019). Qualitative research methods: Collecting evidence, crafting analysis, communicating impact . London: John Wiley & Sons.

Walliman, N. (2021). Research methods: The basics. London: Routledge.

• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd/ 15 Green Flags in a Relationship
• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd/ 15 Signs you're Burnt Out, Not Lazy
• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd/ 15 Toxic Things Parents Say to their Children
• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd/ 15 Red Flags Early in a Relationship

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• What Is a Research Design | Types, Guide & Examples

What Is a Research Design | Types, Guide & Examples

Published on June 7, 2021 by Shona McCombes . Revised on November 20, 2023 by Pritha Bhandari.

A research design is a strategy for answering your   research question  using empirical data. Creating a research design means making decisions about:

• Your overall research objectives and approach
• Whether you’ll rely on primary research or secondary research
• Your sampling methods or criteria for selecting subjects
• Your data collection methods
• The procedures you’ll follow to collect data
• Your data analysis methods

A well-planned research design helps ensure that your methods match your research objectives and that you use the right kind of analysis for your data.

Table of contents

Step 1: consider your aims and approach, step 2: choose a type of research design, step 3: identify your population and sampling method, step 4: choose your data collection methods, step 5: plan your data collection procedures, step 6: decide on your data analysis strategies, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about research design.

• Introduction

Before you can start designing your research, you should already have a clear idea of the research question you want to investigate.

There are many different ways you could go about answering this question. Your research design choices should be driven by your aims and priorities—start by thinking carefully about what you want to achieve.

The first choice you need to make is whether you’ll take a qualitative or quantitative approach.

Qualitative research designs tend to be more flexible and inductive , allowing you to adjust your approach based on what you find throughout the research process.

Quantitative research designs tend to be more fixed and deductive , with variables and hypotheses clearly defined in advance of data collection.

It’s also possible to use a mixed-methods design that integrates aspects of both approaches. By combining qualitative and quantitative insights, you can gain a more complete picture of the problem you’re studying and strengthen the credibility of your conclusions.

Practical and ethical considerations when designing research

As well as scientific considerations, you need to think practically when designing your research. If your research involves people or animals, you also need to consider research ethics .

• How much time do you have to collect data and write up the research?
• Will you be able to gain access to the data you need (e.g., by travelling to a specific location or contacting specific people)?
• Do you have the necessary research skills (e.g., statistical analysis or interview techniques)?
• Will you need ethical approval ?

At each stage of the research design process, make sure that your choices are practically feasible.

Prevent plagiarism. Run a free check.

Within both qualitative and quantitative approaches, there are several types of research design to choose from. Each type provides a framework for the overall shape of your research.

Types of quantitative research designs

Quantitative designs can be split into four main types.

• Experimental and   quasi-experimental designs allow you to test cause-and-effect relationships
• Descriptive and correlational designs allow you to measure variables and describe relationships between them.

With descriptive and correlational designs, you can get a clear picture of characteristics, trends and relationships as they exist in the real world. However, you can’t draw conclusions about cause and effect (because correlation doesn’t imply causation ).

Experiments are the strongest way to test cause-and-effect relationships without the risk of other variables influencing the results. However, their controlled conditions may not always reflect how things work in the real world. They’re often also more difficult and expensive to implement.

Types of qualitative research designs

Qualitative designs are less strictly defined. This approach is about gaining a rich, detailed understanding of a specific context or phenomenon, and you can often be more creative and flexible in designing your research.

The table below shows some common types of qualitative design. They often have similar approaches in terms of data collection, but focus on different aspects when analyzing the data.

Your research design should clearly define who or what your research will focus on, and how you’ll go about choosing your participants or subjects.

In research, a population is the entire group that you want to draw conclusions about, while a sample is the smaller group of individuals you’ll actually collect data from.

Defining the population

A population can be made up of anything you want to study—plants, animals, organizations, texts, countries, etc. In the social sciences, it most often refers to a group of people.

For example, will you focus on people from a specific demographic, region or background? Are you interested in people with a certain job or medical condition, or users of a particular product?

The more precisely you define your population, the easier it will be to gather a representative sample.

• Sampling methods

Even with a narrowly defined population, it’s rarely possible to collect data from every individual. Instead, you’ll collect data from a sample.

To select a sample, there are two main approaches: probability sampling and non-probability sampling . The sampling method you use affects how confidently you can generalize your results to the population as a whole.

Probability sampling is the most statistically valid option, but it’s often difficult to achieve unless you’re dealing with a very small and accessible population.

For practical reasons, many studies use non-probability sampling, but it’s important to be aware of the limitations and carefully consider potential biases. You should always make an effort to gather a sample that’s as representative as possible of the population.

Case selection in qualitative research

In some types of qualitative designs, sampling may not be relevant.

For example, in an ethnography or a case study , your aim is to deeply understand a specific context, not to generalize to a population. Instead of sampling, you may simply aim to collect as much data as possible about the context you are studying.

In these types of design, you still have to carefully consider your choice of case or community. You should have a clear rationale for why this particular case is suitable for answering your research question .

For example, you might choose a case study that reveals an unusual or neglected aspect of your research problem, or you might choose several very similar or very different cases in order to compare them.

Data collection methods are ways of directly measuring variables and gathering information. They allow you to gain first-hand knowledge and original insights into your research problem.

You can choose just one data collection method, or use several methods in the same study.

Survey methods

Surveys allow you to collect data about opinions, behaviors, experiences, and characteristics by asking people directly. There are two main survey methods to choose from: questionnaires and interviews .

Observation methods

Observational studies allow you to collect data unobtrusively, observing characteristics, behaviors or social interactions without relying on self-reporting.

Observations may be conducted in real time, taking notes as you observe, or you might make audiovisual recordings for later analysis. They can be qualitative or quantitative.

Other methods of data collection

There are many other ways you might collect data depending on your field and topic.

If you’re not sure which methods will work best for your research design, try reading some papers in your field to see what kinds of data collection methods they used.

Secondary data

If you don’t have the time or resources to collect data from the population you’re interested in, you can also choose to use secondary data that other researchers already collected—for example, datasets from government surveys or previous studies on your topic.

With this raw data, you can do your own analysis to answer new research questions that weren’t addressed by the original study.

Using secondary data can expand the scope of your research, as you may be able to access much larger and more varied samples than you could collect yourself.

However, it also means you don’t have any control over which variables to measure or how to measure them, so the conclusions you can draw may be limited.

As well as deciding on your methods, you need to plan exactly how you’ll use these methods to collect data that’s consistent, accurate, and unbiased.

Planning systematic procedures is especially important in quantitative research, where you need to precisely define your variables and ensure your measurements are high in reliability and validity.

Operationalization

Some variables, like height or age, are easily measured. But often you’ll be dealing with more abstract concepts, like satisfaction, anxiety, or competence. Operationalization means turning these fuzzy ideas into measurable indicators.

If you’re using observations , which events or actions will you count?

If you’re using surveys , which questions will you ask and what range of responses will be offered?

You may also choose to use or adapt existing materials designed to measure the concept you’re interested in—for example, questionnaires or inventories whose reliability and validity has already been established.

Reliability and validity

Reliability means your results can be consistently reproduced, while validity means that you’re actually measuring the concept you’re interested in.

For valid and reliable results, your measurement materials should be thoroughly researched and carefully designed. Plan your procedures to make sure you carry out the same steps in the same way for each participant.

If you’re developing a new questionnaire or other instrument to measure a specific concept, running a pilot study allows you to check its validity and reliability in advance.

Sampling procedures

As well as choosing an appropriate sampling method , you need a concrete plan for how you’ll actually contact and recruit your selected sample.

That means making decisions about things like:

• How many participants do you need for an adequate sample size?
• What inclusion and exclusion criteria will you use to identify eligible participants?
• How will you contact your sample—by mail, online, by phone, or in person?

If you’re using a probability sampling method , it’s important that everyone who is randomly selected actually participates in the study. How will you ensure a high response rate?

If you’re using a non-probability method , how will you avoid research bias and ensure a representative sample?

Data management

It’s also important to create a data management plan for organizing and storing your data.

Will you need to transcribe interviews or perform data entry for observations? You should anonymize and safeguard any sensitive data, and make sure it’s backed up regularly.

Keeping your data well-organized will save time when it comes to analyzing it. It can also help other researchers validate and add to your findings (high replicability ).

On its own, raw data can’t answer your research question. The last step of designing your research is planning how you’ll analyze the data.

Quantitative data analysis

In quantitative research, you’ll most likely use some form of statistical analysis . With statistics, you can summarize your sample data, make estimates, and test hypotheses.

Using descriptive statistics , you can summarize your sample data in terms of:

• The distribution of the data (e.g., the frequency of each score on a test)
• The central tendency of the data (e.g., the mean to describe the average score)
• The variability of the data (e.g., the standard deviation to describe how spread out the scores are)

The specific calculations you can do depend on the level of measurement of your variables.

Using inferential statistics , you can:

• Make estimates about the population based on your sample data.
• Test hypotheses about a relationship between variables.

Regression and correlation tests look for associations between two or more variables, while comparison tests (such as t tests and ANOVAs ) look for differences in the outcomes of different groups.

Your choice of statistical test depends on various aspects of your research design, including the types of variables you’re dealing with and the distribution of your data.

Qualitative data analysis

In qualitative research, your data will usually be very dense with information and ideas. Instead of summing it up in numbers, you’ll need to comb through the data in detail, interpret its meanings, identify patterns, and extract the parts that are most relevant to your research question.

Two of the most common approaches to doing this are thematic analysis and discourse analysis .

There are many other ways of analyzing qualitative data depending on the aims of your research. To get a sense of potential approaches, try reading some qualitative research papers in your field.

If you want to know more about the research process , methodology , research bias , or statistics , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Simple random sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Cluster sampling
• Likert scales
• Reproducibility

 Statistics

• Null hypothesis
• Statistical power
• Probability distribution
• Effect size
• Poisson distribution

Research bias

• Optimism bias
• Cognitive bias
• Implicit bias
• Hawthorne effect
• Anchoring bias
• Explicit bias

A research design is a strategy for answering your   research question . It defines your overall approach and determines how you will collect and analyze data.

A well-planned research design helps ensure that your methods match your research aims, that you collect high-quality data, and that you use the right kind of analysis to answer your questions, utilizing credible sources . This allows you to draw valid , trustworthy conclusions.

Quantitative research designs can be divided into two main categories:

• Correlational and descriptive designs are used to investigate characteristics, averages, trends, and associations between variables.
• Experimental and quasi-experimental designs are used to test causal relationships .

Qualitative research designs tend to be more flexible. Common types of qualitative design include case study , ethnography , and grounded theory designs.

The priorities of a research design can vary depending on the field, but you usually have to specify:

• Your research questions and/or hypotheses
• Your overall approach (e.g., qualitative or quantitative )
• The type of design you’re using (e.g., a survey , experiment , or case study )
• Your data collection methods (e.g., questionnaires , observations)
• Your data collection procedures (e.g., operationalization , timing and data management)
• Your data analysis methods (e.g., statistical tests  or thematic analysis )

A sample is a subset of individuals from a larger population . Sampling means selecting the group that you will actually collect data from in your research. For example, if you are researching the opinions of students in your university, you could survey a sample of 100 students.

In statistics, sampling allows you to test a hypothesis about the characteristics of a population.

Operationalization means turning abstract conceptual ideas into measurable observations.

For example, the concept of social anxiety isn’t directly observable, but it can be operationally defined in terms of self-rating scores, behavioral avoidance of crowded places, or physical anxiety symptoms in social situations.

Before collecting data , it’s important to consider how you will operationalize the variables that you want to measure.

A research project is an academic, scientific, or professional undertaking to answer a research question . Research projects can take many forms, such as qualitative or quantitative , descriptive , longitudinal , experimental , or correlational . What kind of research approach you choose will depend on your topic.

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Types of Research – Tips and Examples

Published by Carmen Troy at August 16th, 2021 , Revised On May 8, 2024

“Research is an investigation conducted to seek knowledge and find solutions to scientific and social problems.”

It includes the collection of information from various sources. New research can contribute to existing knowledge.

The types of research can be categorised from the following perspectives;

• Application of the study
• Aim of the research
• Mode of Inquiry
• Research approach

Types of Research According to the Application Perspective

The different types of research, according to the application perspective, include the following.

Basic Research

Primary research is conducted to increase knowledge. It is also known as theoretical research, pure research, and fundamental research. It provides in-depth knowledge about the scientific and logical explanations and their conclusions.

The results of the primary research are used as the base of applied research. It is based on  experiments  and observation. The results of basic research are published in peer-reviewed journals.

• What is global warming?
• How did the Universe begin?
• What do humans get stress?

Applied Research

Applied research is conducted to find solutions for practical problems. It uses the outcomes of basic research as its base. The results of applied research are applied immediately. It includes case studies and experimental research.

Example: Finding the solution to control air pollution.

Descriptive Research

Descriptive research is carried out to describe current issues and programs and provides information about the issue through surveys and various fact-finding methods.

It includes co-relational and comparative methods of research. It follows the Ex post facto research, which predicts the possible reasons behind the situation that has already occurred.

A researcher cannot control its variables and can report only about the current situation and its occurring.

Example: The widespread contaminated diseases in a specific area of the town. An investigation revealed that there was no trash removal system in that area. A researcher can hypothesise that improper trash removal leads to widespread contaminated diseases.

Analytical Research

In analytical research, a researcher can use the existing data, facts, and knowledge and critically analyse and evaluate the sources and material. It attempts to describe why a specific situation exists.

Example: Impact of video games on teenagers.

Explanatory

Explanatory research is conducted to know why and how two or more variables are interrelated. Researchers usually conduct experiments to know the effect of specific changes among two or more variables.

Example: A study to identify the impact of a nutritious diet on pregnant women.

Exploratory

Exploratory research is conducted to understand the nature of the problem. It does not focus on finding evidence or a conclusion of the problem. It studies the problem to explore the research in-depth and covers topics that have not been studied before.

Example: An investigation into the growing crimes against women in India.

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Types of Research According to the Mode of Inquiry

Qualitative research.

Qualitative research  is based on quality, and it looks in-depth at non-numerical data. It enables us to understand the comprehensive details of the problem. The researcher prepares open-ended questions to gather as much information as possible.

• Stress level among men and women.
• The obesity rate among teenagers.

Quantitative Research

Quantitative research is associated with the aspects of measurement, quantity, and extent. It follows the statistical, mathematical, and computational techniques in the form of numerical data such as percentages and statistics. The type of research is conducted on a large population.

• Find out the weight of students of the fifth standard
• Studying in government schools.

Types of Research According to the Research Approach

Longitudinal research.

Researchers collect the information at multiple points in time. Usually, a specific group of participants is selected and examined numerous times at various periods.

Example: If a researcher experiments on a group of women to find out the impact of a low-carb diet within six months. The women’s weight and health check-ups will be done multiple times to get the evidence for the study.

Cross-Sectional Research

Cross-sectional research gathers and compares the information from various groups of the population at the same point. It may not provide the exact reason and relationship between the subjects, but it gives a broad picture of studying multiple groups at the same time.

Example: If a researcher wants to know the number of students studying in a school, he will get to know about the age groups, height, weight, and gender of the students at the same time.

Conceptual Research

It is associated with the concept and theory that describes the hypothesis being studied. It is based on  the inductive  approach of reasoning. It does not follow practical experiments. Philosophers, thinkers, logicians, and theorists use such research to discover new concepts and understand existing knowledge.

Example: Discoveries of Sir Isaac Newton and Einstein.

Empirical Research

It is also known as experimental research, which depends on observation and experience. It is based on the  deductive  approach of reasoning . A researcher focuses on gathering information about the facts and their sources and investigating the existing knowledge. Example: Is intermittent fasting the healthy weight loss option for women?

The researcher can come up with the result that a certain number of women lost weight, and it improved their health. On the other hand, a certain number of women suffering from low blood pressure and diabetes didn’t lose weight, and they faced the negative impacts of intermittent fasting on their health.

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Mixed Methods of Research

When you combine quantitative and qualitative methods of research, the resulting approach becomes mixed methods of research.

Over the last few decades, much of the research in the world of academia has been conducted using mixed methods. Due to its greater legitimacy, this particular technique has gained for several reasons, including the feeling that combining the two types of research can provide holistic and more dependable results.

Here is what mixed methods of research involve:

• Interpreting and investigating the information gathered through quantitative and qualitative techniques.
• There could be more than one stage of research. Depending on the topic of research, occasionally, it would be more appropriate to perform qualitative research in the first stage to figure out and investigate a problem to unveil key themes and conduct quantitative research in stage two of the process for measuring relationships between the themes.

 Tips for Choosing the Right Type of Research

Choosing the right type of research is essential for producing relevant and actionable insights. The choice depends on your objectives, available resources, and the nature of the problem. Here are some tips to help you make the right decision:

Define your Research Objectives Clearly

• Descriptive Research: To describe the characteristics of certain phenomena.
• Exploratory Research: To explore a problem that hasn’t been studied in depth.
• Explanatory (or Causal) Research: To explain patterns of cause and effect.
• Predictive Research: To forecast future outcomes based on patterns.

Understand the Research Methods

• Quantitative Research: Employs structured data collection (e.g., surveys) to generate statistical data.
• Qualitative Research: Uses unstructured or semi-structured data collection methods (e.g., interviews, observations) to understand behaviour, motivations, etc.

Consider the Time Dimension

• Cross-sectional Studies: Capture data at a single point in time.
• Longitudinal Studies: Collect data over extended periods to observe changes.

Evaluate Available Resources

• Budget: Some research methods, like experimental research, may require more funding.
• Time: Exploratory or ethnographic studies may take longer than surveys.
• Expertise: Ensure you or your team possess the skills needed for your chosen research method.

Consider the Nature of the Problem

Complex problems may require mixed-methods research (a combination of qualitative and quantitative).

Review Existing Literature

Review existing literature before settling on a type to see what methodologies were previously employed for similar questions.

Think about Data Collection

Consider the best method to gather data: surveys, interviews, experiments, observations, etc. Your choice affects the research type.

Ethical Considerations:

Ensure your chosen method abides by ethical standards, especially when human subjects are involved.

Generalisability Vs. Depth

Quantitative methods often allow for generalisability, while qualitative methods provide depth and detail.

Pilot Testing

If unsure, run a pilot study to test your chosen method’s feasibility and utility.

Stay Open to Adaptation

Sometimes, initial research can lead to unforeseen insights or complexities. Be prepared to adjust your approach if needed.

Seek Feedback

Discuss your research approach with colleagues, mentors, or experts in the field. They might offer valuable insights or identify potential pitfalls.

Stay Updated

Research methods evolve. Stay updated with the latest techniques, tools, and best practices in your field.

Frequently Asked Questions

What is research.

Research is a systematic inquiry aimed at discovering, interpreting, and revising knowledge about specific phenomena. It involves formulating hypotheses, collecting data, and analysing results to generate new insights or validate existing theories. Conducted in various fields, research can be empirical, theoretical, or experimental and is fundamental for informed decision-making.

What are the different Types of Research?

Different types of research include:

• Descriptive: Describe and analyse phenomena.
• Experimental: Manipulate variables to establish causation.
• Correlational: Examine relationships between variables.
• Qualitative: Gather insights and understanding.
• Quantitative: Use numerical data for analysis.
• Case study, survey, ethnography, and more.

What is research design?

Research design is a structured blueprint for conducting a study, outlining how data will be collected, analysed, and interpreted. It determines the overall strategy and approach to obtain valid, accurate, and reliable results. Research design encompasses choices about type (e.g., experimental, observational), method (qualitative, quantitative), and data collection procedures.

What is survey?

A survey is a research method used to gather data from a predefined group by asking specific questions. Surveys can be conducted using various mediums, such as face-to-face interviews, phone calls, or online questionnaires. They are valuable for collecting descriptive, quantitative, or qualitative information and gauging public opinion or behaviours.

What is research method?

A research method is a systematic approach used by researchers to gather, analyse, and interpret data relevant to their study. It dictates how information is collected and evaluated to answer specific research questions. Methods can be qualitative, quantitative, or mixed and include techniques like surveys, experiments, case studies, and interviews.

What is exploratory research?

Exploratory research is an initial study designed to clarify and define the nature of a problem. It’s used when researchers have a limited understanding of the topic. Instead of seeking definitive answers, it aims to identify patterns, ideas, or hypotheses. Methods often include literature reviews, qualitative interviews, and observational studies.

What is the purpose of research?

The purpose of research is to discover, interpret, or revise knowledge on specific topics or phenomena. It seeks to answer questions, validate theories, or find solutions to problems. Research enhances understanding, informs decision-making, guides policies, drives innovation, and contributes to academic, scientific, and societal advancement. It’s fundamental for evidence-based practices.

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You can transcribe an interview by converting a conversation into a written format including question-answer recording sessions between two or more people.

Ethnography is a type of research where a researcher observes the people in their natural environment. Here is all you need to know about ethnography.

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• v.60(9); 2016 Sep

Types of studies and research design

Mukul chandra kapoor.

Department of Anesthesiology, Max Smart Super Specialty Hospital, New Delhi, India

Medical research has evolved, from individual expert described opinions and techniques, to scientifically designed methodology-based studies. Evidence-based medicine (EBM) was established to re-evaluate medical facts and remove various myths in clinical practice. Research methodology is now protocol based with predefined steps. Studies were classified based on the method of collection and evaluation of data. Clinical study methodology now needs to comply to strict ethical, moral, truth, and transparency standards, ensuring that no conflict of interest is involved. A medical research pyramid has been designed to grade the quality of evidence and help physicians determine the value of the research. Randomised controlled trials (RCTs) have become gold standards for quality research. EBM now scales systemic reviews and meta-analyses at a level higher than RCTs to overcome deficiencies in the randomised trials due to errors in methodology and analyses.

INTRODUCTION

Expert opinion, experience, and authoritarian judgement were the norm in clinical medical practice. At scientific meetings, one often heard senior professionals emphatically expressing ‘In my experience,…… what I have said is correct!’ In 1981, articles published by Sackett et al . introduced ‘critical appraisal’ as they felt a need to teach methods of understanding scientific literature and its application at the bedside.[ 1 ] To improve clinical outcomes, clinical expertise must be complemented by the best external evidence.[ 2 ] Conversely, without clinical expertise, good external evidence may be used inappropriately [ Figure 1 ]. Practice gets outdated, if not updated with current evidence, depriving the clientele of the best available therapy.

Triad of evidence-based medicine

EVIDENCE-BASED MEDICINE

In 1971, in his book ‘Effectiveness and Efficiency’, Archibald Cochrane highlighted the lack of reliable evidence behind many accepted health-care interventions.[ 3 ] This triggered re-evaluation of many established ‘supposed’ scientific facts and awakened physicians to the need for evidence in medicine. Evidence-based medicine (EBM) thus evolved, which was defined as ‘the conscientious, explicit and judicious use of the current best evidence in making decisions about the care of individual patients.’[ 2 ]

The goal of EBM was scientific endowment to achieve consistency, efficiency, effectiveness, quality, safety, reduction in dilemma and limitation of idiosyncrasies in clinical practice.[ 4 ] EBM required the physician to diligently assess the therapy, make clinical adjustments using the best available external evidence, ensure awareness of current research and discover clinical pathways to ensure best patient outcomes.[ 5 ]

With widespread internet use, phenomenally large number of publications, training and media resources are available but determining the quality of this literature is difficult for a busy physician. Abstracts are available freely on the internet, but full-text articles require a subscription. To complicate issues, contradictory studies are published making decision-making difficult.[ 6 ] Publication bias, especially against negative studies, makes matters worse.

In 1993, the Cochrane Collaboration was founded by Ian Chalmers and others to create and disseminate up-to-date review of randomised controlled trials (RCTs) to help health-care professionals make informed decisions.[ 7 ] In 1995, the American College of Physicians and the British Medical Journal Publishing Group collaborated to publish the journal ‘Evidence-based medicine’, leading to the evolution of EBM in all spheres of medicine.

MEDICAL RESEARCH

Medical research needs to be conducted to increase knowledge about the human species, its social/natural environment and to combat disease/infirmity in humans. Research should be conducted in a manner conducive to and consistent with dignity and well-being of the participant; in a professional and transparent manner; and ensuring minimal risk.[ 8 ] Research thus must be subjected to careful evaluation at all stages, i.e., research design/experimentation; results and their implications; the objective of the research sought; anticipated benefits/dangers; potential uses/abuses of the experiment and its results; and on ensuring the safety of human life. Table 1 lists the principles any research should follow.[ 8 ]

General principles of medical research

Types of study design

Medical research is classified into primary and secondary research. Clinical/experimental studies are performed in primary research, whereas secondary research consolidates available studies as reviews, systematic reviews and meta-analyses. Three main areas in primary research are basic medical research, clinical research and epidemiological research [ Figure 2 ]. Basic research includes fundamental research in fields shown in Figure 2 . In almost all studies, at least one independent variable is varied, whereas the effects on the dependent variables are investigated. Clinical studies include observational studies and interventional studies and are subclassified as in Figure 2 .

Classification of types of medical research

Interventional clinical study is performed with the purpose of studying or demonstrating clinical or pharmacological properties of drugs/devices, their side effects and to establish their efficacy or safety. They also include studies in which surgical, physical or psychotherapeutic procedures are examined.[ 9 ] Studies on drugs/devices are subject to legal and ethical requirements including the Drug Controller General India (DCGI) directives. They require the approval of DCGI recognized Ethics Committee and must be performed in accordance with the rules of ‘Good Clinical Practice’.[ 10 ] Further details are available under ‘Methodology for research II’ section in this issue of IJA. In 2004, the World Health Organization advised registration of all clinical trials in a public registry. In India, the Clinical Trials Registry of India was launched in 2007 ( www.ctri.nic.in ). The International Committee of Medical Journal Editors (ICMJE) mandates its member journals to publish only registered trials.[ 11 ]

Observational clinical study is a study in which knowledge from treatment of persons with drugs is analysed using epidemiological methods. In these studies, the diagnosis, treatment and monitoring are performed exclusively according to medical practice and not according to a specified study protocol.[ 9 ] They are subclassified as per Figure 2 .

Epidemiological studies have two basic approaches, the interventional and observational. Clinicians are more familiar with interventional research, whereas epidemiologists usually perform observational research.

Interventional studies are experimental in character and are subdivided into field and group studies, for example, iodine supplementation of cooking salt to prevent hypothyroidism. Many interventions are unsuitable for RCTs, as the exposure may be harmful to the subjects.

Observational studies can be subdivided into cohort, case–control, cross-sectional and ecological studies.

• Cohort studies are suited to detect connections between exposure and development of disease. They are normally prospective studies of two healthy groups of subjects observed over time, in which one group is exposed to a specific substance, whereas the other is not. The occurrence of the disease can be determined in the two groups. Cohort studies can also be retrospective
• Case–control studies are retrospective analyses performed to establish the prevalence of a disease in two groups exposed to a factor or disease. The incidence rate cannot be calculated, and there is also a risk of selection bias and faulty recall.

Secondary research

Narrative review.

An expert senior author writes about a particular field, condition or treatment, including an overview, and this information is fortified by his experience. The article is in a narrative format. Its limitation is that one cannot tell whether recommendations are based on author's clinical experience, available literature and why some studies were given more emphasis. It can be biased, with selective citation of reports that reinforce the authors' views of a topic.[ 12 ]

Systematic review

Systematic reviews methodically and comprehensively identify studies focused on a specified topic, appraise their methodology, summate the results, identify key findings and reasons for differences across studies, and cite limitations of current knowledge.[ 13 ] They adhere to reproducible methods and recommended guidelines.[ 14 ] The methods used to compile data are explicit and transparent, allowing the reader to gauge the quality of the review and the potential for bias.[ 15 ]

A systematic review can be presented in text or graphic form. In graphic form, data of different trials can be plotted with the point estimate and 95% confidence interval for each study, presented on an individual line. A properly conducted systematic review presents the best available research evidence for a focused clinical question. The review team may obtain information, not available in the original reports, from the primary authors. This ensures that findings are consistent and generalisable across populations, environment, therapies and groups.[ 12 ] A systematic review attempts to reduce bias identification and studies selection for review, using a comprehensive search strategy and specifying inclusion criteria. The strength of a systematic review lies in the transparency of each phase and highlighting the merits of each decision made, while compiling information.

Meta-analysis

A review team compiles aggregate-level data in each primary study, and in some cases, data are solicited from each of the primary studies.[ 16 , 17 ] Although difficult to perform, individual patient meta-analyses offer advantages over aggregate-level analyses.[ 18 ] These mathematically pooled results are referred to as meta-analysis. Combining data from well-conducted primary studies provide a precise estimate of the “true effect.”[ 19 ] Pooling the samples of individual studies increases overall sample size, enhances statistical analysis power, reduces confidence interval and thereby improves statistical value.

The structured process of Cochrane Collaboration systematic reviews has contributed to the improvement of their quality. For the meta-analysis to be definitive, the primary RCTs should have been conducted methodically. When the existing studies have important scientific and methodological limitations, such as smaller sized samples, the systematic review may identify where gaps exist in the available literature.[ 20 ] RCTs and systematic review of several randomised trials are less likely to mislead us, and thereby help judge whether an intervention is better.[ 2 ] Practice guidelines supported by large RCTs and meta-analyses are considered as ‘gold standard’ in EBM. This issue of IJA is accompanied by an editorial on Importance of EBM on research and practice (Guyat and Sriganesh 471_16).[ 21 ] The EBM pyramid grading the value of different types of research studies is shown in Figure 3 .

The evidence-based medicine pyramid

In the last decade, a number of studies and guidelines brought about path-breaking changes in anaesthesiology and critical care. Some guidelines such as the ‘Surviving Sepsis Guidelines-2004’[ 22 ] were later found to be flawed and biased. A number of large RCTs were rejected as their findings were erroneous. Another classic example is that of ENIGMA-I (Evaluation of Nitrous oxide In the Gas Mixture for Anaesthesia)[ 23 ] which implicated nitrous oxide for poor outcomes, but ENIGMA-II[ 24 , 25 ] conducted later, by the same investigators, declared it as safe. The rise and fall of the ‘tight glucose control’ regimen was similar.[ 26 ]

Although RCTs are considered ‘gold standard’ in research, their status is at crossroads today. RCTs have conflicting interests and thus must be evaluated with careful scrutiny. EBM can promote evidence reflected in RCTs and meta-analyses. However, it cannot promulgate evidence not reflected in RCTs. Flawed RCTs and meta-analyses may bring forth erroneous recommendations. EBM thus should not be restricted to RCTs and meta-analyses but must involve tracking down the best external evidence to answer our clinical questions.

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Home > Blog > Tips for Online Students > A Comprehensive Guide to Different Types of Research

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A Comprehensive Guide to Different Types of Research

Updated: June 19, 2024

Published: June 15, 2024

When embarking on a research project, selecting the right methodology can be the difference between success and failure. With various methods available, each suited to different types of research, it’s essential you make an informed choice. This blog post will provide tips on how to choose a research methodology that best fits your research goals .

We’ll start with definitions: Research is the systematic process of exploring, investigating, and discovering new information or validating existing knowledge. It involves defining questions, collecting data, analyzing results, and drawing conclusions.

Meanwhile, a research methodology is a structured plan that outlines how your research is to be conducted. A complete methodology should detail the strategies, processes, and techniques you plan to use for your data collection and analysis.

Research Methods

The first step of a research methodology is to identify a focused research topic, which is the question you seek to answer. By setting clear boundaries on the scope of your research, you can concentrate on specific aspects of a problem without being overwhelmed by information. This will produce more accurate findings. 

Along with clarifying your research topic, your methodology should also address your research methods. Let’s look at the four main types of research: descriptive, correlational, experimental, and diagnostic.

Descriptive Research

Descriptive research is an approach designed to describe the characteristics of a population systematically and accurately. This method focuses on answering “what” questions by providing detailed observations about the subject. Descriptive research employs surveys, observational studies , and case studies to gather qualitative or quantitative data. 

A real-world example of descriptive research is a survey investigating consumer behavior toward a competitor’s product. By analyzing the survey results, the company can gather detailed insights into how consumers perceive a competitor’s product, which can inform their marketing strategies and product development.

Correlational Research

Correlational research examines the statistical relationship between two or more variables to determine whether a relationship exists. Correlational research is particularly useful when ethical or practical constraints prevent experimental manipulation. It is often employed in fields such as psychology, education, and health sciences to provide insights into complex real-world interactions, helping to develop theories and inform further experimental research.

An example of correlational research is the study of the relationship between smoking and lung cancer. Researchers observe and collect data on individuals’ smoking habits and the incidence of lung cancer to determine if there is a correlation between the two variables. This type of research helps identify patterns and relationships, indicating whether increased smoking is associated with higher rates of lung cancer.

Experimental Research

Experimental research is a scientific approach where researchers manipulate one or more independent variables to observe their effect on a dependent variable. This method is designed to establish cause-and-effect relationships. Fields like psychology , medicine, and social sciences frequently employ experimental research to test hypotheses and theories under controlled conditions. 

A real-world example of experimental research is Pavlov’s Dog experiment. In this experiment, Ivan Pavlov demonstrated classical conditioning by ringing a bell each time he fed his dogs. After repeating this process multiple times, the dogs began to salivate just by hearing the bell, even when no food was presented. This experiment helped to illustrate how certain stimuli can elicit specific responses through associative learning.

Diagnostic Research

Diagnostic research tries to accurately diagnose a problem by identifying its underlying causes. This type of research is crucial for understanding complex situations where a precise diagnosis is necessary for formulating effective solutions. It involves methods such as case studies and data analysis and often integrates both qualitative and quantitative data to provide a comprehensive view of the issue at hand. 

An example of diagnostic research is studying the causes of a specific illness outbreak. During an outbreak of a respiratory virus, researchers might conduct diagnostic research to determine the factors contributing to the spread of the virus. This could involve analyzing patient data, testing environmental samples, and evaluating potential sources of infection. The goal is to identify the root causes and contributing factors to develop effective containment and prevention strategies.

Using an established research method is imperative, no matter if you are researching for marketing , technology , healthcare , engineering, or social science. A methodology lends legitimacy to your research by ensuring your data is both consistent and credible. A well-defined methodology also enhances the reliability and validity of the research findings, which is crucial for drawing accurate and meaningful conclusions. 

Additionally, methodologies help researchers stay focused and on track, limiting the scope of the study to relevant questions and objectives. This not only improves the quality of the research but also ensures that the study can be replicated and verified by other researchers, further solidifying its scientific value.

How to Choose a Research Methodology

Choosing the best research methodology for your project involves several key steps to ensure that your approach aligns with your research goals and questions. Here’s a simplified guide to help you make the best choice.

Understand Your Goals

Clearly define the objectives of your research. What do you aim to discover, prove, or understand? Understanding your goals helps in selecting a methodology that aligns with your research purpose.

Consider the Nature of Your Data

Determine whether your research will involve numerical data, textual data, or both. Quantitative methods are best for numerical data, while qualitative methods are suitable for textual or thematic data.

Understand the Purpose of Each Methodology

Becoming familiar with the four types of research – descriptive, correlational, experimental, and diagnostic – will enable you to select the most appropriate method for your research. Many times, you will want to use a combination of methods to gather meaningful data. 

Evaluate Resources and Constraints

Consider the resources available to you, including time, budget, and access to data. Some methodologies may require more resources or longer timeframes to implement effectively.

Review Similar Studies

Look at previous research in your field to see which methodologies were successful. This can provide insights and help you choose a proven approach.

By following these steps, you can select a research methodology that best fits your project’s requirements and ensures robust, credible results.

Completing Your Research Project

Upon completing your research, the next critical step is to analyze and interpret the data you’ve collected. This involves summarizing the key findings, identifying patterns, and determining how these results address your initial research questions. By thoroughly examining the data, you can draw meaningful conclusions that contribute to the body of knowledge in your field. 

It’s essential that you present these findings clearly and concisely, using charts, graphs, and tables to enhance comprehension. Furthermore, discuss the implications of your results, any limitations encountered during the study, and how your findings align with or challenge existing theories.

Your research project should conclude with a strong statement that encapsulates the essence of your research and its broader impact. This final section should leave readers with a clear understanding of the value of your work and inspire continued exploration and discussion in the field.

Now that you know how to perform quality research , it’s time to get started! Applying the right research methodologies can make a significant difference in the accuracy and reliability of your findings. Remember, the key to successful research is not just in collecting data, but in analyzing it thoughtfully and systematically to draw meaningful conclusions. So, dive in, explore, and contribute to the ever-growing body of knowledge with confidence. Happy researching!

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What is Research? – Definition, Objectives & Types of Research

Introduction: Research is a systematic and structured investigation that seeks to expand knowledge, uncover new insights, and provide evidence-based understanding in various fields. It is vital in advancing human understanding, addressing complex problems, and driving innovation. Research encompasses a wide range of methodologies, including empirical studies, experiments, surveys, and theoretical analyses, conducted by researchers across academic, scientific, and professional domains. New discoveries are made through research, theories are developed and tested, and practical solutions are generated. The impact of research is far-reaching, influencing advancements in technology, healthcare, social sciences, environmental conservation, and more. It drives progress, informs policy decisions, and shapes the future by providing a solid foundation of reliable and verified knowledge. The importance of research cannot be overstated, as it drives human knowledge forward and fosters societal development and improvement. Types of Research

What is Research?

The primary objective of the research is to contribute to the existing body of knowledge by uncovering new insights, validating existing theories, or challenging prevailing assumptions. It is driven by the pursuit of truth, accuracy, and evidence-based understanding.

Research can take various forms, depending on the discipline and the nature of the inquiry. It can be empirical, involving the collection and analysis of data through experiments, surveys, observations, or interviews. It can also be theoretical, involving the critical analysis of existing literature and concepts to develop new frameworks or models.

The research process is characterized by systematic and organized steps. It begins with identifying a research problem or topic of interest, followed by an extensive literature review to understand the existing knowledge and identify gaps. Research questions or hypotheses are formulated, and a research design is developed to guide data collection and analysis.

Data collection methods can vary widely, ranging from quantitative approaches such as surveys or experiments to qualitative approaches such as interviews or case studies. Researchers analyze the collected data using appropriate statistical or qualitative analysis techniques to draw meaningful conclusions.

One of the key aspects of research is its emphasis on objectivity and rigor. Researchers strive to minimize bias, ensure the reliability and validity of findings, and maintain ethical standards in their research practices.

The impact of research extends far beyond the academic realm. Research findings inform decision-making processes in various sectors, including healthcare, policy development, business strategies, environmental conservation, and social sciences. It drives technological advancements, fosters innovation, and provides the foundation for evidence-based practices.

Furthermore, research is an iterative process, with new studies building upon and refining existing knowledge. It is a collaborative endeavor, often involving interdisciplinary collaborations and the exchange of ideas among researchers worldwide.

Definitions of Research:

Research is a systematic and organized investigation conducted to expand knowledge, gain a deeper understanding, and generate new insights in a specific field. It involves rigorous and organized data collection, analysis, and interpretation to address research questions or hypotheses. The pursuit of new information drives research, the validation of existing theories, or the exploration of new perspectives. It employs various methodologies to gather and analyze data, including empirical studies, experiments, surveys, interviews, or theoretical analyses. The ultimate goal of the research is to contribute to the existing body of knowledge, advance understanding, and inform decision-making processes across academic, scientific, and professional domains.

Kasi (2009) 1 defines “Research is, therefore, a method for investigating and collecting information aimed at the discovery of new facts or interpretation of existing information, to discover or revise facts, theories, and applications.”

Research is stated by Gina Wisker 1 as “Research is about asking and beginning to answer questions, seeking knowledge and understanding of the world and its processes, and testing assumptions and beliefs.”

Redman and Mory define research as a “systematized effort to gain new knowledge.” 2

Burns (1997) defines research as “a systematic investigation to find answers to a problem.” 2

“The word research is composed of two syllables, re and search. The dictionary defines the former as a prefix meaning again, anew, or over again and the latter as a verb meaning to examine closely and carefully, to test and try, or to probe. Together, they form a noun describing a careful, systematic, patient study and investigation in some field of knowledge undertaken to establish facts or principles.” (Grinnell 1993) 2

Objectives of Research:

The research objectives can vary depending on the specific field of study, the nature of the research, and the researcher’s goals. However, some common purposes of the research include:

• Answer questions: Research aims to provide answers to specific questions or hypotheses. It seeks to investigate and uncover information, data, or insights about a particular topic or issue.
• Solve problems: Research is often conducted to address real-world issues or challenges. It aims to identify innovative solutions, strategies, or approaches that can help overcome obstacles and improve existing systems or practices.
• Generate new knowledge: Research endeavors to contribute to the existing body of knowledge by uncovering new information, theories, or perspectives. It involves exploring uncharted territory or expanding upon existing knowledge in various fields of study.
• Improve understanding: Research aims to deepen our understanding of complex phenomena, processes, or concepts. It seeks to clarify misconceptions, explore underlying mechanisms, or uncover relationships between variables, leading to a more comprehensive and accurate understanding of the subject.
• Add value: Research brings value by providing practical or theoretical benefits. It can lead to technological advancements, policies or practices, enhanced decision-making processes, or the development of new products, services, or theories.

Types of Research:

C.R. Kothari, a renowned Indian researcher and author, has proposed several types of research in his book Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques . According to Kothari, research can be categorized into the following types:

• Descriptive Research: Descriptive research is a method of investigation that provides an accurate and comprehensive description of a specific phenomenon, situation, or population. It involves collecting data through various methods, such as surveys, interviews, or observations, and analyzing the data to identify patterns, characteristics, or trends. Descriptive research does not aim to establish causal relationships or manipulate variables but instead aims to answer questions about what is happening or the current state of the research subject. This type of research is valuable in generating a foundational understanding of a topic, informing decision-making processes, and providing a basis for further research in various fields of study.
• Analytical Research: Analytical research focuses on critically examining and interpreting existing data, information, or theories to gain deeper insights and understanding. It involves analyzing and evaluating data or literature to identify patterns, relationships, or underlying causes. Analytical research aims to go beyond descriptive findings and delves into the reasons and explanations behind observed phenomena. This type of research often involves rigorous statistical analysis, comparative studies, or theoretical frameworks to draw conclusions and make inferences. Analytical research is crucial in advancing knowledge, refining theories, and providing evidence-based insights that can inform decision-making and policy development in various fields of study.
• Applied Research: Applied research is a type of research that is conducted to address practical problems or improve existing practices. It focuses on directly applying knowledge and theories to real-world situations and aims to provide actionable solutions. Applied research often involves collaborating with stakeholders, such as industry professionals or policymakers, to ensure the research outcomes have practical relevance. This type of research emphasizes implementing and evaluating interventions, strategies, or technologies to solve specific issues. The results of applied research can potentially impact society, leading to advancements in technology, policy improvements, or enhanced practices in various domains, including healthcare, education, business, and engineering.
• Fundamental Research: Fundamental research, also known as basic research or pure research, is a type of inquiry that aims to expand knowledge and understanding in a particular field. It explores theoretical concepts, principles, and fundamental laws without immediate practical application. Fundamental research is driven by curiosity and the desire to explore new frontiers of knowledge. It often involves the formulation of hypotheses, experimentation, and rigorous data analysis. The fundamental research findings may not have immediate or direct practical implications. Still, they lay the groundwork for applied research and can lead to significant breakthroughs, innovations, and advancements in various scientific disciplines. Fundamental research is essential for pushing the boundaries of knowledge and fostering a deeper understanding of the world around us.
• Qualitative Research: Qualitative research is an exploratory approach to understanding individuals’ or groups’ meaning, context, and subjective experiences. It involves collecting and analyzing non-numerical data, such as interviews, observations, or textual analysis, to gain deep insights into complex social phenomena. Qualitative research focuses on uncovering underlying motivations, beliefs, attitudes, and cultural influences that shape human behavior. It emphasizes the richness, depth, and complexity of human experiences and seeks to provide a detailed and holistic understanding of a research topic. Qualitative research methods allow for flexibility and adaptability, enabling researchers to capture nuances and explore emerging themes. This type of research is valuable in fields such as anthropology, sociology, psychology, and education, where a deep understanding of human behavior and social processes is sought.
• Quantitative Research: Quantitative research systematically gathers and analyzes numerical data to uncover patterns, trends, and relationships. It involves collecting structured data through surveys, experiments, or observations and applying statistical techniques for data analysis. Quantitative research aims to quantify variables, measure phenomena, and draw objective conclusions based on statistical evidence. This type of research focuses on obtaining precise and measurable results, often using large sample sizes to increase the generalizability of findings. Quantitative research is prevalent in social sciences, economics, psychology, and market research, where numerical data and statistical analysis provide a rigorous and quantifiable approach to understanding and explaining phenomena.

Significance of Research:

The significance of research cannot be overstated, as it serves as the cornerstone of progress and development in various fields. Whether in science, technology, social sciences, or humanities, research is vital in advancing knowledge, addressing problems, and shaping society.

One of the primary significances of research is its ability to expand our understanding and knowledge base. Through rigorous investigation, research uncovers new information, theories, and insights that contribute to the existing body of knowledge. It allows us to delve deeper into complex phenomena, explore uncharted territories, and uncover hidden connections. This expansion of knowledge forms the basis for innovation, development, and the evolution of society.

Research also serves as a powerful tool for problem-solving. It enables us to identify and address pressing issues, whether they are in healthcare, education, economics, or any other field. By systematically examining problems, collecting and analyzing relevant data, and developing evidence-based solutions, research provides the means to overcome challenges and improve existing practices. It empowers us to make informed decisions, develop effective strategies, and allocate resources wisely.

Furthermore, research plays a critical role in informing decision-making processes. Policymakers, business leaders, and organizations rely on research findings to guide their choices, shape policies, and plan for the future. Research provides reliable and credible information, allowing decision-makers to navigate complex issues more confidently and accurately. It serves as a bridge between theory and practice, translating abstract concepts into tangible outcomes that benefit society.

Innovation and improvement are other significant outcomes of research. Research drives innovation by exploring new ideas, pushing boundaries, and challenging established norms. It leads to the developing of new technologies, products, and services that improve our quality of life. Research also fosters improvements in existing practices and processes by identifying inefficiencies, gaps, and areas for enhancement. Through research, we continuously strive to find better, more efficient ways of doing things.

Research has a profound impact on society as a whole. It addresses social issues, informs public policies, and promotes positive social change. Research provides evidence-based solutions that address societal challenges, from healthcare interventions to educational reforms. It influences public opinion, shapes cultural norms, and contributes to communities’ well-being and progress.

Moreover, research plays a crucial role in validating and challenging existing knowledge. It provides empirical evidence that supports or challenges established theories and concepts. Through rigorous scrutiny and critical analysis, research ensures that knowledge constantly evolves, grows, and adapts to new information. It encourages intellectual discourse, promotes healthy skepticism, and encourages a culture of lifelong learning.

References: 

• Kasi, P. (2009). Research: What, Why and How? AuthorHouse.
• Kothari, C. R. (2004). Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques . New Age International.

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Home » Research Methodology – Types, Examples and writing Guide

Research Methodology – Types, Examples and writing Guide

Table of Contents

Research Methodology

Definition:

Research Methodology refers to the systematic and scientific approach used to conduct research, investigate problems, and gather data and information for a specific purpose. It involves the techniques and procedures used to identify, collect , analyze , and interpret data to answer research questions or solve research problems . Moreover, They are philosophical and theoretical frameworks that guide the research process.

Structure of Research Methodology

Research methodology formats can vary depending on the specific requirements of the research project, but the following is a basic example of a structure for a research methodology section:

I. Introduction

• Provide an overview of the research problem and the need for a research methodology section
• Outline the main research questions and objectives

II. Research Design

• Explain the research design chosen and why it is appropriate for the research question(s) and objectives
• Discuss any alternative research designs considered and why they were not chosen
• Describe the research setting and participants (if applicable)

III. Data Collection Methods

• Describe the methods used to collect data (e.g., surveys, interviews, observations)
• Explain how the data collection methods were chosen and why they are appropriate for the research question(s) and objectives
• Detail any procedures or instruments used for data collection

IV. Data Analysis Methods

• Describe the methods used to analyze the data (e.g., statistical analysis, content analysis )
• Explain how the data analysis methods were chosen and why they are appropriate for the research question(s) and objectives
• Detail any procedures or software used for data analysis

V. Ethical Considerations

• Discuss any ethical issues that may arise from the research and how they were addressed
• Explain how informed consent was obtained (if applicable)
• Detail any measures taken to ensure confidentiality and anonymity

VI. Limitations

• Identify any potential limitations of the research methodology and how they may impact the results and conclusions

VII. Conclusion

• Summarize the key aspects of the research methodology section
• Explain how the research methodology addresses the research question(s) and objectives

Research Methodology Types

Types of Research Methodology are as follows:

Quantitative Research Methodology

This is a research methodology that involves the collection and analysis of numerical data using statistical methods. This type of research is often used to study cause-and-effect relationships and to make predictions.

Qualitative Research Methodology

This is a research methodology that involves the collection and analysis of non-numerical data such as words, images, and observations. This type of research is often used to explore complex phenomena, to gain an in-depth understanding of a particular topic, and to generate hypotheses.

Mixed-Methods Research Methodology

This is a research methodology that combines elements of both quantitative and qualitative research. This approach can be particularly useful for studies that aim to explore complex phenomena and to provide a more comprehensive understanding of a particular topic.

Case Study Research Methodology

This is a research methodology that involves in-depth examination of a single case or a small number of cases. Case studies are often used in psychology, sociology, and anthropology to gain a detailed understanding of a particular individual or group.

Action Research Methodology

This is a research methodology that involves a collaborative process between researchers and practitioners to identify and solve real-world problems. Action research is often used in education, healthcare, and social work.

Experimental Research Methodology

This is a research methodology that involves the manipulation of one or more independent variables to observe their effects on a dependent variable. Experimental research is often used to study cause-and-effect relationships and to make predictions.

Survey Research Methodology

This is a research methodology that involves the collection of data from a sample of individuals using questionnaires or interviews. Survey research is often used to study attitudes, opinions, and behaviors.

Grounded Theory Research Methodology

This is a research methodology that involves the development of theories based on the data collected during the research process. Grounded theory is often used in sociology and anthropology to generate theories about social phenomena.

Research Methodology Example

An Example of Research Methodology could be the following:

Research Methodology for Investigating the Effectiveness of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy in Reducing Symptoms of Depression in Adults

Introduction:

The aim of this research is to investigate the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) in reducing symptoms of depression in adults. To achieve this objective, a randomized controlled trial (RCT) will be conducted using a mixed-methods approach.

Research Design:

The study will follow a pre-test and post-test design with two groups: an experimental group receiving CBT and a control group receiving no intervention. The study will also include a qualitative component, in which semi-structured interviews will be conducted with a subset of participants to explore their experiences of receiving CBT.

Participants:

Participants will be recruited from community mental health clinics in the local area. The sample will consist of 100 adults aged 18-65 years old who meet the diagnostic criteria for major depressive disorder. Participants will be randomly assigned to either the experimental group or the control group.

Intervention :

The experimental group will receive 12 weekly sessions of CBT, each lasting 60 minutes. The intervention will be delivered by licensed mental health professionals who have been trained in CBT. The control group will receive no intervention during the study period.

Data Collection:

Quantitative data will be collected through the use of standardized measures such as the Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II) and the Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7 (GAD-7). Data will be collected at baseline, immediately after the intervention, and at a 3-month follow-up. Qualitative data will be collected through semi-structured interviews with a subset of participants from the experimental group. The interviews will be conducted at the end of the intervention period, and will explore participants’ experiences of receiving CBT.

Data Analysis:

Quantitative data will be analyzed using descriptive statistics, t-tests, and mixed-model analyses of variance (ANOVA) to assess the effectiveness of the intervention. Qualitative data will be analyzed using thematic analysis to identify common themes and patterns in participants’ experiences of receiving CBT.

Ethical Considerations:

This study will comply with ethical guidelines for research involving human subjects. Participants will provide informed consent before participating in the study, and their privacy and confidentiality will be protected throughout the study. Any adverse events or reactions will be reported and managed appropriately.

Data Management:

All data collected will be kept confidential and stored securely using password-protected databases. Identifying information will be removed from qualitative data transcripts to ensure participants’ anonymity.

Limitations:

One potential limitation of this study is that it only focuses on one type of psychotherapy, CBT, and may not generalize to other types of therapy or interventions. Another limitation is that the study will only include participants from community mental health clinics, which may not be representative of the general population.

Conclusion:

This research aims to investigate the effectiveness of CBT in reducing symptoms of depression in adults. By using a randomized controlled trial and a mixed-methods approach, the study will provide valuable insights into the mechanisms underlying the relationship between CBT and depression. The results of this study will have important implications for the development of effective treatments for depression in clinical settings.

How to Write Research Methodology

Writing a research methodology involves explaining the methods and techniques you used to conduct research, collect data, and analyze results. It’s an essential section of any research paper or thesis, as it helps readers understand the validity and reliability of your findings. Here are the steps to write a research methodology:

• Start by explaining your research question: Begin the methodology section by restating your research question and explaining why it’s important. This helps readers understand the purpose of your research and the rationale behind your methods.
• Describe your research design: Explain the overall approach you used to conduct research. This could be a qualitative or quantitative research design, experimental or non-experimental, case study or survey, etc. Discuss the advantages and limitations of the chosen design.
• Discuss your sample: Describe the participants or subjects you included in your study. Include details such as their demographics, sampling method, sample size, and any exclusion criteria used.
• Describe your data collection methods : Explain how you collected data from your participants. This could include surveys, interviews, observations, questionnaires, or experiments. Include details on how you obtained informed consent, how you administered the tools, and how you minimized the risk of bias.
• Explain your data analysis techniques: Describe the methods you used to analyze the data you collected. This could include statistical analysis, content analysis, thematic analysis, or discourse analysis. Explain how you dealt with missing data, outliers, and any other issues that arose during the analysis.
• Discuss the validity and reliability of your research : Explain how you ensured the validity and reliability of your study. This could include measures such as triangulation, member checking, peer review, or inter-coder reliability.
• Acknowledge any limitations of your research: Discuss any limitations of your study, including any potential threats to validity or generalizability. This helps readers understand the scope of your findings and how they might apply to other contexts.
• Provide a summary: End the methodology section by summarizing the methods and techniques you used to conduct your research. This provides a clear overview of your research methodology and helps readers understand the process you followed to arrive at your findings.

When to Write Research Methodology

Research methodology is typically written after the research proposal has been approved and before the actual research is conducted. It should be written prior to data collection and analysis, as it provides a clear roadmap for the research project.

The research methodology is an important section of any research paper or thesis, as it describes the methods and procedures that will be used to conduct the research. It should include details about the research design, data collection methods, data analysis techniques, and any ethical considerations.

The methodology should be written in a clear and concise manner, and it should be based on established research practices and standards. It is important to provide enough detail so that the reader can understand how the research was conducted and evaluate the validity of the results.

Applications of Research Methodology

Here are some of the applications of research methodology:

• To identify the research problem: Research methodology is used to identify the research problem, which is the first step in conducting any research.
• To design the research: Research methodology helps in designing the research by selecting the appropriate research method, research design, and sampling technique.
• To collect data: Research methodology provides a systematic approach to collect data from primary and secondary sources.
• To analyze data: Research methodology helps in analyzing the collected data using various statistical and non-statistical techniques.
• To test hypotheses: Research methodology provides a framework for testing hypotheses and drawing conclusions based on the analysis of data.
• To generalize findings: Research methodology helps in generalizing the findings of the research to the target population.
• To develop theories : Research methodology is used to develop new theories and modify existing theories based on the findings of the research.
• To evaluate programs and policies : Research methodology is used to evaluate the effectiveness of programs and policies by collecting data and analyzing it.
• To improve decision-making: Research methodology helps in making informed decisions by providing reliable and valid data.

Purpose of Research Methodology

Research methodology serves several important purposes, including:

• To guide the research process: Research methodology provides a systematic framework for conducting research. It helps researchers to plan their research, define their research questions, and select appropriate methods and techniques for collecting and analyzing data.
• To ensure research quality: Research methodology helps researchers to ensure that their research is rigorous, reliable, and valid. It provides guidelines for minimizing bias and error in data collection and analysis, and for ensuring that research findings are accurate and trustworthy.
• To replicate research: Research methodology provides a clear and detailed account of the research process, making it possible for other researchers to replicate the study and verify its findings.
• To advance knowledge: Research methodology enables researchers to generate new knowledge and to contribute to the body of knowledge in their field. It provides a means for testing hypotheses, exploring new ideas, and discovering new insights.
• To inform decision-making: Research methodology provides evidence-based information that can inform policy and decision-making in a variety of fields, including medicine, public health, education, and business.

Advantages of Research Methodology

Research methodology has several advantages that make it a valuable tool for conducting research in various fields. Here are some of the key advantages of research methodology:

• Systematic and structured approach : Research methodology provides a systematic and structured approach to conducting research, which ensures that the research is conducted in a rigorous and comprehensive manner.
• Objectivity : Research methodology aims to ensure objectivity in the research process, which means that the research findings are based on evidence and not influenced by personal bias or subjective opinions.
• Replicability : Research methodology ensures that research can be replicated by other researchers, which is essential for validating research findings and ensuring their accuracy.
• Reliability : Research methodology aims to ensure that the research findings are reliable, which means that they are consistent and can be depended upon.
• Validity : Research methodology ensures that the research findings are valid, which means that they accurately reflect the research question or hypothesis being tested.
• Efficiency : Research methodology provides a structured and efficient way of conducting research, which helps to save time and resources.
• Flexibility : Research methodology allows researchers to choose the most appropriate research methods and techniques based on the research question, data availability, and other relevant factors.
• Scope for innovation: Research methodology provides scope for innovation and creativity in designing research studies and developing new research techniques.

Research Methodology Vs Research Methods

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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Neag School of Education

Educational Research Basics by Del Siegle

Types of Research

How do we know something exists? There are a numbers of ways of knowing…

• -Sensory Experience
• -Agreement with others
• -Expert Opinion
• -Scientific Method (we’re using this one)

The Scientific Process (replicable)

• Identify a problem
• Clarify the problem
• Determine what data would help solve the problem
• Organize the data
• Interpret the results

General Types of Educational Research

• Descriptive — survey, historical, content analysis, qualitative (ethnographic, narrative, phenomenological, grounded theory, and case study)
• Associational — correlational, causal-comparative
• Intervention — experimental, quasi-experimental, action research (sort of)

Researchers Sometimes Have a Category Called Group Comparison

• Ex Post Facto (Causal-Comparative): GROUPS ARE ALREADY FORMED
• Experimental: RANDOM ASSIGNMENT OF INDIVIDUALS
• Quasi-Experimental: RANDOM ASSIGNMENT OF GROUPS (oversimplified, but fine for now)

General Format of a Research Publication

• Background of the Problem (ending with a problem statement) — Why is this important to study? What is the problem being investigated?
• Review of Literature — What do we already know about this problem or situation?
• Methodology (participants, instruments, procedures) — How was the study conducted? Who were the participants? What data were collected and how?
• Analysis — What are the results? What did the data indicate?
• Results — What are the implications of these results? How do they agree or disagree with previous research? What do we still need to learn? What are the limitations of this study?

Del Siegle, PhD [email protected]

Last modified 6/18/2019

What Is Research? Types and Methods

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Forage puts students first. Our blog articles are written independently by our editorial team. They have not been paid for or sponsored by our partners. See our full  editorial guidelines .

Research is the process of examining a hypothesis to make discoveries. Practically every career involves research in one form or another. Accountants research their client’s history and financial documents to understand their financial situation, and data scientists perform research to inform data-driven decisions. 

In this guide, we’ll go over: 

Research Definition

Types of research , research methods, careers in research, showing research skills on resumes.

Research is an investigation into a topic or idea to discover new information. There’s no all-encompassing definition for research because it’s an incredibly varied approach to finding discoveries. For example, research can be as simple as seeking to answer a question that already has a known answer, like reading an article to learn why the sky is blue. 

Research can also be much broader, seeking to answer questions that have never before been asked. For instance, a lot of research looks for ways to deepen our collective understanding of social, physical, and biological phenomena. Besides broadening humanity’s knowledge, research is a great tool for businesses and individuals to learn new things.

Why Does Research Matter?

While some research seeks to uncover ground-breaking information on its own, other research forms building blocks that allow for further development. For example, Tony Gilbert of the Masonic Medical Research Institute (MMRI) says that Dr. Gordon K. Moe, a co-founder and director of research at MMRI, led early studies of heart rhythms and arrhythmia.  

Gilbert notes that this research “allowed other scientists and innovators to develop inventions like the pacemaker and defibrillator (AED). So, while Dr. Moe did not invent the pacemaker or the AED, the basic research produced at the MMRI lab helped make these devices possible, and this potentially benefitted millions of people.”

Of course, not every researcher is hunting for medical innovations and cures for diseases. In fact, most companies, regardless of industry or purpose, use research every day.  

“Access to the latest information enables you to make informed decisions to help your business succeed,” says Andrew Pickett, trial attorney at Andrew Pickett Law, PLLC.

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Scientific Research

Scientific research utilizes a systematic approach to test hypotheses. Researchers plan their investigation ahead of time, and peers test findings to ensure the analysis was performed accurately. 

Foundational research in sciences, often referred to as “basic science,” involves much of the research done at medical research organizations. Research done by the MMRI falls into this category, seeking to uncover “new information and insights for scientists and medical researchers around the world.”

Scientific research is a broad term; studies can be lab-based, clinical, quantitative, or qualitative. Studies can also switch between different settings and methods, like translational research. 

“Translational research moves research from lab-settings to the settings in which they will provide direct impact (for example, moving bench science to clinical settings),” says Laren Narapareddy, faculty member and researcher at Emory University.

Historical Research

Historical research involves studying past events to determine how they’ve affected the course of time, using historical data to explain or anticipate current and future events, and filling in gaps in history. Researchers can look at past socio-political events to hypothesize how similar events could pan out in the future.  

However, historical research can also focus on figuring out what actually happened at a moment in time, like reading diary entries to better understand life in England in the 14th century. 

In many ways, research by data, financial, and marketing analysts can be considered historical because these analysts look at past trends to predict future outcomes and make business decisions. 

User Research

User research is often applied in business and marketing to better understand a customer base. Researchers and analysts utilize surveys, interviews, and feedback channels to evaluate their clients’ and customers’ wants, needs, and motivations. Analysts may also apply user research techniques to see how customers respond to a product’s user experience (UX) design and test the efficacy of marketing campaigns. 

Market Research

Market research utilizes methods similar to user research but seeks to look at a customer base more broadly. Studies of markets take place at an intersection between economic trends and customer decision-making. 

Market research “allows you to stay up-to-date with industry trends and changes so that you can adjust your business strategies accordingly,” says Pickett. 

A primary goal in market research is finding competitive advantages over other businesses. Analysts working in market research may conduct surveys, focus groups, or historical analysis to predict how a demographic will act (and spend) in the future. 

Other Types of Research

The world of research is constantly expanding. New technologies bring new ways to ask and answer unique questions, creating the need for different types of research. Additionally, certain studies or questions may not be easily answered by one kind of research alone, and researchers can approach hypotheses from a variety of directions. So, more niche types of research seek to solve some of the more complex questions. 

For instance, “multidisciplinary research brings experts in different disciplines together to ask and answer questions at the intersection of their fields,” says Narapareddy.

Research doesn’t happen in a bubble, though. To foster better communication between researchers and the public, types of research exist that bring together both scientists and non-scientists. 

“Community-based participatory research is a really important and equitable model of research that involves partnerships among researchers, communities and organizations at all stages of the research process,” says Narapareddy.

Regardless of the type of research or the study’s primary goal, researchers usually use quantitative or qualitative methods. 

Qualitative Methods

Qualitative research focuses on descriptive information, such as people’s beliefs and emotional responses. Researchers often use focus groups, interviews, and surveys to gather qualitative data. 

This approach to research is popular in sociology, political science, psychology, anthropology, and software engineering . For instance, determining how a user feels about a website’s look isn’t easily put into numbers (quantitative data). So, when testing UX designs, software engineers rely on qualitative research. 

Quantitative Methods

Quantitative research methods focus on numerical data like statistics, units of time, or percentages. Researchers use quantitative methods to determine concrete things, like how many customers purchased a product. Analysts and researchers gather quantitative data using surveys, censuses, A/B tests, and random data sampling. 

Practically every industry or field uses quantitative methods. For example, a car manufacturer testing the effectiveness of new airbag technology looks for quantitative data on how often the airbags deploy properly. Additionally, marketing analysts look for increased sales numbers to see if a marketing campaign was successful. 

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Mixed-Methods

Answering a question or testing a hypothesis may require a mixture of qualitative and quantitative methods. To see if your customers like your website, for instance, you’ll likely apply qualitative methods, like asking them how they feel about the site’s look and visual appeal, and quantitative methods, like seeing how many customers use the website daily. Research that involves qualitative and quantitative methods is called mixed-method research. 

Researching ideas and hypotheses is a common task in many different careers. For example, working in sales requires understanding quantitative research methods to determine if certain actions improve sales numbers. Some research-intensive career paths include:

• Data science
• Investment banking
• Product management
• Civil rights law
• Actuarial science  

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Working in Research

Once you have the fundamentals of researching down, the subject matter may evolve or change over the course of your career. 

“My first research experience was assessing fall risk in firefighters — and I now use multi-omic methods [a type of molecular cell analysis] to understand fertility and reproductive health outcomes in women,” notes Narapareddy.

For those considering a career in research, it’s important to “take the time to explore different research methods and techniques to gain a better understanding of what works best for them,” says Pickett. 

Remember that research is exploratory by nature, so don’t be afraid to fail. 

“The work of scientists who came before us helps guide the path for future research, including both their hits and misses,” says Gilbert.

You can show off your research skills on your resume by listing specific research methods in your skills section. You can also call out specific instances you used research skills, and the impact your research had, in the description of past job or internship experiences. For example, you could talk about a time you researched competitors’ marketing strategies and used your findings to suggest a new campaign. 

Your cover letter is another great place to discuss your experience with research. Here, you can talk about large-scale research projects you completed during school or at previous jobs and explain how your research skills would help you in the job you’re applying for. If you have experience collecting and collating data from research surveys during college, for instance, that can translate into data analysis and organizational skills. 

Grow your skills and get job-ready with Forage’s free job simulations . 

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Types of Research Methods Explained with Examples

Research methods are the various strategies, techniques, and tools that researchers use to collect and analyze data . These methods help researchers find answers to their questions and gain a better understanding of different topics. Whether conducting experiments, surveys, or interviews, choosing the right research method is crucial for obtaining accurate and reliable results.

In the ever-evolving world of academia and professional inquiry, understanding the various research methods is crucial for anyone looking to delve into a new study or project. Research is a systematic investigation aimed at discovering and interpreting facts , plays a pivotal role in expanding our knowledge across various fields.

Table of Content

What is Research?

Types of research methods, types of research methodology, difference between qualitative and quantitative research.

This article will explore the different types of research methods , how they are used, and their importance in the world of research.

Research is the process of studying a subject in detail to discover new information or understand it better. This can be anything from studying plants or animals, to learning how people think and behave, to finding new ways to cure diseases. People do research by asking questions, collecting information, and then looking at that information to find answers or learn new things.

This table provides a quick reference to understand the key aspects of each research type.

1. Qualitative Research

Qualitative research method is a methodological approach primarily used in fields like social sciences, anthropology, and psychology . It’s aimed at understanding human behavior and the motivations behind it. Qualitative research delves into the nature of phenomena through detailed, in-depth exploration.

Definition and Approach: Qualitative research focuses on understanding human behavior and the reasons that govern such behavior. It involves in-depth analysis of non-numerical data like texts, videos, or audio recordings.

Key Features:

• Emphasis on exploring complex phenomena
• Involves interviews, focus groups , and observations
• Generates rich, detailed data that are often subjective

Applications: Widely used in social sciences, marketing, and user experience research.

2. Quantitative Research

Quantitative research method is a systematic approach used in various scientific fields to quantify data and generalize findings from a sample to a larger population.

Definition and Approach: Quantitative research is centered around quantifying data and generalizing results from a sample to the population of interest. It involves statistical analysis and numerical data .

• Relies on structured data collection instruments
• Large sample sizes for generalizability
• Statistical methods to establish relationships between variables

Applications: Common in natural sciences, economics, and market research.

3. Descriptive Research

Descriptive research is a type of research method that is used to describe characteristics of a population or phenomenon being studied . It does not answer questions about how or why things are the way they are. Instead, it focuses on providing a snapshot of current conditions or describing what exists.

Definition and Approach: This Types of Research method aims to accurately describe characteristics of a particular phenomenon or population.

• Provides detailed insights without explaining why or how something happens
• Involves surveys and observations
• Often used as a preliminary research method

Applications: Used in demographic studies, census, and organizational reporting.

4. Analytical Research

Analytical research is a type of research that s eeks to understand the underlying factors or causes behind phenomena or relationships . It goes beyond descriptive research by attempting to explain why things happen and how they happen.

Definition and Approach: Analytical research method goes beyond description to understand the underlying reasons or causes.

• Involves comparing data and facts to make evaluations
• Critical thinking is a key component
• Often hypothesis-driven

Applications: Useful in scientific research, policy analysis, and business strategy.

5. Applied Research

Applied research is a type of scientific research method that aims to solve specific practical problems or address practical questions . Unlike fundamental research, which seeks to expand knowledge for knowledge’s sake, applied research is directed towards solving real-world issues .

Definition and Approach: Applied research focuses on finding solutions to practical problems.

• Direct practical application
• Often collaborative , involving stakeholders
• Results are immediately applicable

Applications: Used in healthcare, engineering, and technology development.

6. Fundamental Research

Fundamental research, also known as basic research or pure research, is a type of scientific research method that aims to expand the existing knowledge base. It is driven by curiosity, interest in a particular subject, or the pursuit of knowledge for knowledge’s sake , rather than with a specific practical application in mind.

Definition and Approach: Also known as basic or pure research, it aims to expand knowledge without a direct application in mind.

• Theoretical framework
• Focus on understanding fundamental principles
• Long-term in nature

Applications: Foundational in fields like physics, mathematics, and social sciences.

7. Exploratory Research

Exploratory research is a type of research method conducted for a problem that has not been clearly defined. Its primary goal is to gain insights and familiarity with the problem or to gain more information about a topic. Exploratory research is often conducted when a researcher or investigator does not know much about the issue and is looking to gather more information.

Definition and Approach: This type of research is conducted for a problem that has not been clearly defined.

• Flexible and unstructured
• Used to identify potential hypotheses
• Relies on secondary research like reviewing available literature

Applications: Often the first step in social science research and product development.

8. Conclusive Research

Conclusive research, also known as confirmatory research, is a type of research method that aims to confirm or deny a hypotheses or provide answers to specific research questions. It is used to make conclusive decisions or draw conclusions about the relationships among variables.

Definition and Approach: Conclusive research is designed to provide information that is useful in decision-making.

• Structured and methodical
• Aims to test hypotheses
• Involves experiments, surveys, and testing

Applications: Used in market research, clinical trials, and policy evaluations.

Here is detailed difference between the qualitative and quantitative research –

Understanding the different types of research methods is crucial for anyone embarking on a research project. Each type has its unique approach, methodology, and application area, making it essential to choose the right type for your specific research question or problem. This guide serves as a starting point for researchers to explore and select the most suitable research method for their needs, ensuring effective and reliable outcomes.

Types of Research Methods – FAQs

What are the 4 main types of research methods.

There are four main types of Quantitative research:  Descriptive, Correlational, Causal-Comparative/Quasi-Experimental, and Experimental Research . attempts to establish cause- effect relationships among the variables. These types of design are very similar to true experiments, but with some key differences.

What are the 5 main purpose of research?

The primary purposes of basic research (as opposed to applied research) are  documentation, discovery, interpretation, and the research and development (R&D) of methods and systems for the advancement of human knowledge .

What are 7 C’s of research?

The 7 C’s define the principles that are essential for conducting rigorous and credible research. They are Curiosity, Clarity, Conciseness, Correctness, Completeness, Coherence, Credibility.

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21 Types of Market Research and Examples

Last updated August 21, 2024

If you are involved in market research and are interested in qualitative research methods, you might be interested in the different types of market research that you can choose from. There are various types of market research but here are 21 of the main types.

Page Contents

Types of Market Research

1. focus groups.

Using focus groups can be a fairly simple yet highly effective method for learning about a product or service that you plan to push into the marketplace.

Inviting a small number of people as a group to come and try out your product and discuss their thoughts can be invaluable. You can observe the discussion, questions, ideas, complaints, etc about your product or service.

This is a fairly inexpensive but powerful way to get feedback on your product that you might otherwise miss.

The focus group generally will be made up of a wide range of people who reflect your typical audience or customer and are people whose opinions you can normally trust , because you have chosen them specifically for this task.

2. Observation

Observation can be used in focus groups (as discussed above) and it is an incredibly powerful way to begin to understand how people react, interact, and use products and services in real-world everyday situations.

You can also use observation to watch users in a real-world environment interact with your product or service.

If you want to understand why people never seem to enter your store even though it is on the main route to other stores, for, example, observation might provide you with the answer.

• Is there something that distracts them as they approach your storefront?
• Do they think about entering and then seem to choose not to enter?
• Is there perhaps a person selling something directly outside that people seem to try and avoid and affects your business?

Observation alone can sometimes provide you with a lot of the information you need and is sometimes the only type of research needed.

Using pricing is another great way to gather data and do market research.

You might, for example, want to do A and B pricing, meaning two different prices presented under similar market conditions, and then compare the results.

Does lowering the price point result in far higher sales? Or vice versa?

Also, recording and documenting all of your main competitors’ prices and then analyzing these against your prices can provide insight into the market conditions and expectations.

Your prices might be higher as you try and provide a higher quality offering. This is something you can factor in as you undertake pricing market research.

4. Brand Sentiment

Brand Sentiment is something that we can more easily study and do market research on these days, given that so many companies are on social media.

Brand sentiment is about the impression, feeling, and general thoughts a person (and people in general) have about a brand.

What words, emotions, and feelings do people associate with a given brand? With your brand?

One way to analyze brand sentiment is by doing market research on a company’s social media sites.

What terms, words, and tags do customers and anyone who comments on the brand use in hashtags, in any social media comments, and in discussions?

>> Qualitative Market Research Teaching Materials

5. Analyse Sales Data

Perhaps one of the more obvious and easiest (easiest in that you will already have access to the data) research tools is to analyze the historical sales data.

What is the most popular product in terms of sales and are there extra products you can attach to this to boost further sales, i.e. are there any follow-up products you can release?

Are you spending too much on marketing products that simply never sell? Could that budget be refocused on the better-selling items?

How do the products/services sell in relation to the marketing budget each receives, as a percentage?

There are numerous questions and ways to analyze sales data and it certainly is a key option in terms of market research.

6. Interviews

Market research interviews can come in a variety of ways including through:

• Interviews as part of a focus group
• Semi-structured of structured one-on-one interviews

If you want to try and get as much information as possible about a new product, for example, then a small focus group can work well.

With the focus group, you might leave them in the room for an hour to discuss your product and they talk about whatever they want in relation to the product and get to try it (as mentioned earlier).

You might want to find out specific information, so you might use more structured interviews where you ask more specific questions to the group or to individuals one-on-one.

Interviews can also come in the form of general questionnaires that you have trained interviewers/market researchers use to approach the general public to ask about a given product or service.

7. Mystery Shopper

Some people are hired in market research to act as mystery shoppers, whereby they act as a customer in order to experience the full customer journey, be it in person or online, to provide feedback on the whole experience.

This is a common approach for in-person market research and can work really well for services related to retail and similar service-related businesses.

You can have the mystery shopper also though, not only shop in your own business but also act to research your competitors and to then provide information on:

• Prices differences
• Customer service experience comparison
• Anything else at all they noted about the overall customer experience (i.e. perhaps the wayfinding experience was easier in a certain store)

8. Competitor Analysis

When we look at the different types of market research, in addition to the mystery shopper idea above, in terms of competitor analysis, we can also do a far more in-depth piece of research and ask ourselves:

• What direction are our competitors taking in terms of new products and services?
• What size are they in terms of employees, budgets and how can we compete (and win)?
• What is the brand sentiment for our competitors’ products?
• What are they doing well that we are failing to do well?
• What do we do better and what do we need to continue improving on?

The Internet, of course, can provide many of the answers through market research online.

Polls are relatively easy to run and they can provide some quick and handy information.

There are numerous ways to run a poll and one easy way is through your social media site, i.e. you can run a poll on Facebook if you have a company Facebook page. Likewise, you can also use a service such as ‘ Polls Everywhere ‘.

A poll can be useful for trying to understand one issue at a time such as:

• How much are people willing to pay for a product?
• What is the key reason for buying a product?

10. Secondary Research

As the term suggests, secondary research is about taking and using data from secondary resources.

So, for example, statistics that you take from a government website or from the media. Or the data might be from statistics companies such as Gartner or Statista.

Secondary data can be extremely useful because it tends to be data that we otherwise could never realistically have the money or time to collect ourselves.

11. Feasibility Studies

Feasibility studies are another type of market research and are an option that many large companies often undertake when the intended project involves a large amount of money.

A feasibility study will normally be about trying to evaluate, percentage-wise, the chance of a project succeeding or not succeeding in the future.

The idea is to invest early on in the market research to work out if it is worth the costs involved with proceeding further with the project.

12. Field Trials

A field trial is an interesting form of market research in that it is a testing stage where the product becomes available only to a small number of people so that it can be tested before fully being launched.

So, it might be available for your very best customers to have a peak preview of an upcoming product such as a new game you are releasing.

In return for their feedback, they get to see the game first and perhaps get a sizable discount when the final product is released market-wide.

13. Advertising Testing

There are a few types of market research related to direct advertising and one such method is advertising testing.

The concept is fairly straightforward in that this is about organizing small advertising campaigns as premises for doing much larger campaigns later on.

The test will help you evaluate the market so that you can better understand how best to run a larger campaign most effectively.

The options for online advertising are endless and herein lies the reason for testing as it is incredibly easy these days to spend on advertising budgets, and it’s getting harder to get a ROI (Return On Investment) for the advertising spend.

14. Customer Research

Before even building a product or service, you might want to consider customer research as a form of market research to really drill down to who your ideal customer is.

What you might want to do is plan a customer avatar.

This means working out who your ideal customer would be. This will be a fictional character and you will research and then detail what age they would be, their types of interests and hobbies, and as much information as you can about their character, background, and skills.

This is your ideal target customer and this can greatly help you in understanding then how to market your product to the intended customer avatar.

15. Descriptive Research

Descriptive research is a little more complex than some of the other methods discussed in this list, but it is important to also mention.

Typically, this type of research answers questions that start with “What…” and it often combines both qualitative and quantitative data to answer the research question.

16. Primary Research

We have already mentioned secondary research so it might be no surprise to you that there is also primary research.

There are different types of primary market research and these include some of the items we have already mentioned, but they come under this umbrella as ‘Primary Research’ and can include:

• Questionnaires
• Focus groups

Primary research as the term perhaps suggests, is research where you directly gather the data yourself in-house, rather than, for example, using secondary data that someone else has collected.

17. Concept Testing

Concept testing can be used in connection to product development and might incorporate focus groups that we talked about earlier.

As you develop a product and prepare it for release, it can be extremely useful to better understand:

• What features people might want included
• What price people are likely to be willing to pay

It can be worth providing a focus group or focus individuals with a prototype at a few different stages as it can be extremely useful to get key feedback and ideas early on and at every stage possible.

Concept testing can literally save you thousands in income when a focus group member points out an obvious design flaw or obvious error, but one that those closely aligned with the design have overlooked.

18. Online Surveys

You might also choose to do an online survey (different from polls) to gather more information about the needs, wants, and thoughts of your target customers.

An online survey is different from an online poll in that a poll tends to ask one specific question and typically there will be 4 or 5 options to choose from.

Surveys tend to be much more open and allow for open questions to be included so that participants are not limited in the feedback that they can give you.

Just be aware though that the survey design is a skill unto itself in that you need to ensure that you:

• Ask the right questions
• Ask open-ended questions
• and that the questions do not guide the participants to answer in a specific way

19. Quantitative Data

When talking about market research, even though many of the options already discussed include quantitative data or qualitative data, it is worth explaining the two as unique entities.

Quantitative data is about taking what is considered a scientific approach based on numbers.

For sales figures, for example, this is quantitative data as the data is based on exact sales.

In market research though, we can only learn a certain amount through analyzing quantitative data, hence why qualitative data can be so useful.

20. Qualitative data

Qualitative data is data that does not rely on numbers but instead more so on feelings, thoughts, perceptions, etc.

This type of data is extremely useful in market research because we are looking at the unknowns and things that cannot yet be measured.

21. Social Media

In addition to being able to analyze brand sentiment through companies’ social media sites, we can also use social media for researching the overall market conditions including:

• Competitors
• Opportunities
• Gaps in the market

Given the options for market research through social media, I have placed this as its own point in the types of market research, as social media is a great opportunity to learn about the marketplace, before making key decisions .

Market Research Further Resources

I hope you have found this post on all types of market research useful. There are a few other resources though that might also be of interest below:

• Market research training activities
• How to write research questions
• Market research design activity
• Also, make sure to take a look at the teaching materials for qualitative research and market research.

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• 21 Types of Market Research and Examples - August 20, 2024
• 5 Free Qualitative Teaching Activities for Market Research Training - August 19, 2024
• 21 Effective and Essential Coaching Skills for Managers - August 15, 2024

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Ultimate Guide to the 7 Types of Research: Definitions, Examples, Advantages and Limitations!

About the article : different types of research.

Research is a fundamental aspect of any field of study, providing a systematic approach to gather and analyze information. It plays a crucial role in expanding knowledge, solving problems, and making informed decisions. Understanding the different types of research is essential for researchers to choose the most appropriate method for their study.

In this article, we will explore the various types of research methods commonly used in academic and professional settings. Each type of research has its own unique characteristics, strengths, and limitations. By gaining a comprehensive understanding of these research types, researchers can effectively design and conduct their studies to achieve their objectives.

Exploratory Research

Exploratory research is a type of research that is used to investigate a problem that is not clearly defined and gain a better understanding of the existing problem. It is often conducted when a researcher has just begun an investigation and wishes to understand the topic generally.

There are two main methods of conducting exploratory research: primary research and secondary research. Primary research involves collecting new data directly from the source, while secondary research involves analyzing existing data that has already been collected by others.

Under these two broad types, various methods can be employed to gather information. These methods include surveys, interviews , focus groups, observations, and case studies. Each method has its own advantages and disadvantages, and the choice of method depends on the nature of the research question and the available resources.

Exploratory research is valuable because it helps researchers gain insights and generate hypotheses for further investigation. It allows them to explore new areas of study and discover potential relationships between variables. However, it is important to note that exploratory research does not provide definitive answers or conclusive results. Instead, it lays the foundation for more in-depth research and helps researchers refine their research questions and methodologies.

Descriptive Research

Descriptive research is a methodological approach that seeks to depict the characteristics of a phenomenon or subject under investigation. It involves observing and measuring without manipulating variables, allowing researchers to identify characteristics, trends, and correlations. The main goal of descriptive research is to provide a detailed description of the population or phenomenon being studied. This type of research focuses on answering questions such as how, what, when, and where.

There are three basic approaches for gathering data in descriptive research: observational, case study, and survey. Observational research involves observing and recording behavior in its natural setting. Case study research involves in-depth analysis of a single individual, group, or situation. Survey research involves collecting data from a sample of individuals through questionnaires or interviews.

Descriptive research is particularly useful when researchers want to describe specific behaviors, characteristics, or trends as they occur in the environment. It provides a foundation for further research and can help generate hypotheses for future studies.

However, one limitation of descriptive research is that it does not establish causal relationships between variables. It can only provide a snapshot of the current state of the population or phenomenon being studied. Despite this limitation, descriptive research plays a crucial role in understanding and describing various aspects of the world around us.

Experimental Research

Experimental research is a quantitative research method with a scientific approach. It is the most familiar type of research design for individuals in the physical sciences and a host of other fields. This type of research design is popular in scientific experiments, social sciences, medical science, etc. Experimental research involves manipulating one or more variables to observe the effect on another variable. It aims to establish cause-and-effect relationships between variables. The researcher carefully controls and manipulates the independent variable(s) while measuring the dependent variable(s).

There are two broad categories of experimental research designs: true experimental designs and quasi-experimental designs. True experimental designs involve random assignment of participants to different groups and manipulation of the independent variable. Quasi-experimental designs lack random assignment but still involve manipulation of the independent variable.

One advantage of experimental research is its ability to establish causal relationships. By manipulating variables and controlling extraneous factors, researchers can determine whether changes in the independent variable(s) cause changes in the dependent variable(s). This allows for a more confident understanding of cause and effect.

Another advantage of experimental research is its versatility. It can be used in various fields and disciplines, allowing researchers to investigate a wide range of phenomena. Whether it’s testing the effectiveness of a new drug, studying the impact of different teaching methods, or exploring the relationship between variables, experimental research provides a powerful tool for scientific inquiry.

However, experimental research also has some limitations. One limitation is the potential for artificiality. In a controlled laboratory setting, variables may be manipulated in a way that does not fully reflect real-world conditions. This can limit the generalizability of the findings to real-life situations. Additionally, experimental research may face ethical considerations. Manipulating variables and potentially exposing participants to certain conditions can raise ethical concerns. Researchers must ensure that the benefits of the study outweigh any potential risks or harm to participants.

Correlational Research

Correlational research is a type of non-experimental research that focuses on observing and measuring the relationship between two or more variables. Unlike experimental research, the researcher does not control or manipulate the variables in correlational research. The main purpose of correlational research is to determine if there is a statistical relationship between the variables being studied. It involves comparing two variables and data sources, assessing the relationship between them, and identifying any trends or patterns.

There are several types of correlational studies that can be conducted. One type is positive correlation, which occurs when an increase in one variable is associated with an increase in another variable. For example, there may be a positive correlation between income and education level, meaning that as income increases, education level also tends to increase.

On the other hand, negative correlation refers to a relationship where an increase in one variable is associated with a decrease in another variable. An example of negative correlation could be the relationship between hours spent studying and test scores. As the number of hours spent studying increases, test scores tend to decrease. Lastly, zero correlation indicates that there is no relationship between the variables being studied. This means that changes in one variable do not affect the other variable. For instance, there may be zero correlation between shoe size and intelligence.

Correlational research is commonly used in various fields, including psychology, sociology, and marketing. It provides valuable insights into the relationships between variables and helps researchers understand the patterns and trends in data. However, correlational research has its limitations. Since it does not involve manipulation of variables, it cannot establish causation. It can only identify associations between variables. Additionally, correlational research relies on the accuracy and reliability of the data collected, which can be influenced by various factors.

Causal-Comparative Research

Causal-comparative research is a methodology used to identify cause-effect relationships between independent and dependent variables. It is a type of research method where the researcher tries to find out if there is a causal effect relationship between two or more groups or variables.

The main objective of causal-comparative research is to determine the cause or reason for pre-existing differences in groups of individuals. This research design involves comparing groups that have already been formed based on a specific characteristic or condition. The researcher then analyzes the differences between these groups to identify any causal relationships.

There are two types of causal-comparative research designs: retrospective and prospective. Retrospective causal-comparative research looks at past events or conditions to determine the cause-effect relationship. On the other hand, prospective causal-comparative research looks at current or future events or conditions to identify the causal relationship.

One example of causal-comparative research is a study comparing the critical thinking skills of students who were taught using the inquiry method versus those who were taught using the lecture method. The researcher would compare the two groups of students and analyze the differences in their critical thinking abilities to determine if the teaching method had a causal effect on their skills.

Causal-comparative research has its advantages and disadvantages. One advantage is that it allows researchers to study cause-effect relationships in situations where it is not possible or ethical to manipulate variables. It also provides valuable insights into the factors that contribute to differences between groups.

However, a limitation of causal-comparative research is that it cannot establish a cause-effect relationship with certainty, as there may be other variables or factors that influence the observed differences between groups.

Qualitative Research

Qualitative research is a type of research that explores and provides deeper insights into real-world problems. Instead of collecting numerical data, qualitative research deals with data types such as text, audio, images, and video, focusing on the variety of human experiences and perspectives.

There are different types of qualitative research methods that researchers can use depending on their study requirements. Some common qualitative research methods include in-depth interviews, focus groups, ethnographic research, content analysis, and case study. In-depth interviews involve conducting one-on-one interviews with participants to gather detailed information about their experiences, opinions, and perspectives. This method allows researchers to delve deep into the thoughts and feelings of individuals and gain a comprehensive understanding of their experiences.

Focus groups involve bringing together a small group of participants to discuss a specific topic or issue. The group dynamic allows for the exploration of different perspectives and the generation of rich and diverse insights. Focus groups are particularly useful for understanding social interactions and group dynamics. Ethnographic research involves immersing the researcher in the natural environment of the participants to observe and understand their behaviors, beliefs, and cultural practices. This method allows for a holistic understanding of the social and cultural context in which individuals operate.

Content analysis involves systematically analyzing textual, audio, or visual data to identify patterns, themes, and meanings. This method is often used to analyze documents, media content, or online discussions to gain insights into societal trends, attitudes, or representations. Case study research involves in-depth investigation of a specific individual, group, or organization. Researchers collect and analyze multiple sources of data to gain a comprehensive understanding of the case under study. Case studies are particularly useful for exploring complex phenomena or unique situations.

Qualitative research provides several advantages. It allows researchers to explore complex and nuanced phenomena in depth, providing rich and detailed insights. It also allows for flexibility and adaptability in the research process, as researchers can adjust their approach based on emerging findings. Additionally, qualitative research is often used to generate hypotheses or theories that can be further tested using quantitative research methods.

However, qualitative research also has some limitations. The findings are often context-specific and may not be generalizable to a larger population. The subjective nature of qualitative data collection and analysis can introduce bias and interpretation challenges. Qualitative research also requires significant time and resources, as data collection and analysis can be time-consuming and labor-intensive.

Quantitative Research

Quantitative research is a type of research that involves collecting and analyzing numerical data to describe characteristics, find correlations, or test hypotheses. It is characterized by structured tools like surveys, substantial sample sizes, closed-ended questions, and reliance on prior studies.

There are two main types of quantitative research: primary and secondary. Primary quantitative research involves collecting data directly from the source, such as through surveys or experiments. Secondary quantitative research, on the other hand, involves analyzing existing data that has been collected by someone else.

Quantitative research methods can be used to quantify opinions, behaviors, attitudes, and other definitive variables related to the market, customers, competitors, and more. It provides a systematic and objective approach to studying phenomena and allows for statistical analysis to draw conclusions.

There are several types of quantitative research designs that can be used, depending on the research objectives . These include descriptive research, correlational research, causal-comparative research, and experimental research as per explained above.

In conclusion, understanding the different types of research is essential for conducting effective and meaningful studies. Each type of research has its own strengths and limitations, and researchers must carefully consider which approach is the most appropriate for their specific research question and objectives. It is important to recognize that research is an iterative process, and different types of research may be used at different stages of a study.

In summary, the various types of research offer different perspectives and methodologies for investigating and understanding the world around us. By utilizing a combination of these approaches, researchers can gain a comprehensive understanding of complex phenomena and make meaningful contributions to their fields of study.

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NIHR takes on management of Better Methods for Better Research (BMBR) Programme

Published: 21 August 2024

The management of the Better Methods for Better Research (BMBR) Programme will be moving from UKRI Medical Research Council (MRC) to NIHR this summer. NIHR will also increase its financial contribution, enhancing opportunities for high quality research.

The BMBR Programme is a collaboration between MRC and NIHR. It aims to ensure that optimal research methods are used to advance biomedical, health and care research, policy and delivery.

BMBR has funded a variety of important methods research. This includes methods for adaptive clinical trials, which allowed multiple treatments for Covid-19 to be rapidly tested in the RECOVERY trial. BMBR has also improved how insights into treatments can be measured using real-world evidence.

The BMBR Programme will remain a close collaboration between MRC and NIHR, and the remit and approach will stay the same. The regular schedule for advertising funding opportunities will continue. Both MRC and NIHR will also continue to fund methods research through other schemes.

Researchers will now need to apply for BMBR funding through NIHR’s application system. While the process will be very similar, there may be some differences. In particular, NIHR has requirements for  patient and public involvement and research inclusion . NIHR also remains keen to encourage applications led by early-career researchers.

In addition to taking over management, NIHR’s extra funding is increasing the overall budget of the BMBR Programme. In 2025, there will also be a complete review of the programme to reflect on its achievements to date. This will help to optimise future effectiveness.

Professor Danny McAuley, Scientific Director for NIHR Programmes, said: “This is an exciting next step for the BMBR Programme. It is a clear indication of NIHR’s commitment to funding research that underpins life-changing impact. We look forward to continuing to work with MRC to help researchers improve and enhance the methods they use.”

MRC Executive Chair, Professor Patrick Chinnery, said: “BMBR has supported excellence in methodology research since its inception in 2008 and MRC welcomes the matched increase in NIHR contribution to support the programme’s continuing impact. MRC remains committed to supporting methods research via BMBR and our other funding opportunities, and we are looking forward to working with NIHR in this new phase of the BMBR Programme”.

The next BMBR funding opportunity will open in September 2024. Full application guidance will be available.

If you have any queries before then, you can contact the programme at [email protected] .

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Should I stop eating meat? New research shows a link between eating certain meats and type 2 diabetes: Benefits of a plant-based diet

A new study suggests a possible link between regularly consuming red and processed meats and the chronic disease..

This article is for informational purposes only and is not a substitute for professional medical advice, diagnosis or treatment. Contact a qualified medical professional before engaging in any physical activity, or making any changes to your diet, medication or lifestyle.

Meat might make a tasty centrepiece to all kinds of meals between breakfast and dinnertime, but it might be a good idea to start questioning how much of it — and which kinds — you eat on a regular basis. New research indicates there's a link between eating certain meats and chronic disease, meaning it might make sense to reevaluate your diet.

A study published on Tuesday in The Lancet Diabetes and Endocrinology journal suggests regularly eating red and processed meats is associated with an increased risk of type 2 diabetes . Analyzing nearly two million participants across 20 countries from 31 cohorts, this is the most comprehensive to date showing the link, said senior study author Dr. Nita Forouhi tells CNN in an email.

Since the study was observational, the researchers can't conclude a direct link between consuming meat and diabetes. However, Forouhi says the connection was strong, noting "these findings were consistent across populations in different world regions and countries."

While the team accounted for potential factors including diet quality, physical activity, smoking, alcohol intake, energy intake and body mass index, other possible contributors like family history, insulin resistance and waist circumference weren't able to be included.

What is type 2 diabetes?

Type 2 diabetes is a chronic condition where you have persistently high blood sugar levels. It can occur when your pancreas doesn't make enough insulin, your body can't properly use insulin or both. It's the most common type of diabetes and differs from type 1 diabetes, which happens when an autoimmune attack on your pancreas prevents it from creating insulin.

The Public Health Agency of Canada indicated in a 2023 report that in 2020-2021, there were 3.7 million Canadians living with the disease, or 9.4 per cent of the population. In the U.S., more than 37 million people have diabetes, with about 90 to 95 per cent of them having type 2 diabetes, according to Cleveland Clinic .

What are the symptoms of type 2 diabetes?

Symptoms of type 2 diabetes typically develop slowly over time and may include:

Frequent urination

Unusual thirst

Unexplained weight loss

Slow healing of cuts, sores

Blurred vision

Tingling or numbness in the hands, feet

How much meat should I be eating?

While meat often gets a bad rap for its possible connections to high blood pressure, cholesterol and certain cancers, it's not entirely the worst thing to eat. For instance, red meat is high in iron, zinc and B vitamins.

Still, Canada's Food Guide recommends replacing meats higher in saturated fats with leaner varieties, and striving to eat mostly plant-based foods. Additionally, the World Cancer Research Fund suggests no more than moderate amounts of red meat, or about three portions (350 to 500 grams) per week. Both resources also recommend eating little, if any, processed meat.

What are the short-term effects of giving up meat?

While you might not realize it, your body changes within the first few hours after cutting out meat. A meatless diet often includes more significant amounts of other essential food groups, such as whole grains, vegetables, fruits and legumes, all of which are rich in fibre . That's an essential nutrient for normalizing bowel movements and controlling blood sugar levels.

Over the next few days, it's likely you'll start seeing your plant-based diet increase the quality and frequency of your bowel movements; Soluble fibre promotes easier defecating with healthy stool formation and texture, while insoluble fibre helps you "go" more regularly.

Eventually, you should also see lowered cholesterol, as red meat is one of the worst offenders due to high levels of saturated fats. A diet high in plant-based foods will naturally see lower cholesterol and saturated fat, since they're less prevalent in these foods.

What are the long-term effects of giving up meat?

While there are some short-term effects to giving up meat, you might have to be patient to see more favourable outcomes when it comes to adopting a plant-based diet. It can take one to several months before you start seeing certain changes. Some of the those primary benefits, if you follow a plant-based diet for several months or even years, may include:

A healthier gut : A diet devoid of meat is associated with positive bacterial growth in your gut.

Improved skin : Fruits and vegetables are typically large parts of plant-based diets, which contain beneficial nutrients like vitamins C, E and A.

Weight loss : There's a connection between vegan or vegetarian diets and weight loss , but a well-balanced, consistent diet along with regular exercise can also contribute to weight loss.

Reduced inflammation levels : A meatless diet has been observed to reduce inflammation in the body.

Should I give up eating meat?

There may be many benefits to taking up a plant-based diet, and while guidelines in Canada and worldwide recommend eating healthier, it doesn't mean there are strict suggestions to completely cut out meat. Instead, omnivores should consider which meat products they're consuming, ensuring they're eating leaner cuts of meat and fewer processed products.

It's worth noting that if you stop eating meat and switch to a vegetarian or vegan diet, you'll likely need to work harder to get some essential nutrients. That includes getting calcium, protein, iron, vitamin B12, iodine and vitamin D from other food sources or supplements. Overall, making any major changes to your diet requires thinking more critically about what you're eating.

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6-Day International Workshop on Research Methods in Social Sciences

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The 6-Day International Workshop on Research Methods in Social Sciences organised by the School of Social Sciences and Languages in association with SPARC-Govt of India is a comprehensive event designed to enhance the research capabilities of research scholars from the broad disciplines of Social Sciences and Commerce backgrounds, held from August 26th to August 31st, 2024. This workshop will bring together renowned experts and researchers with an aim to provide participants with a thorough understanding of contemporary research methods, equipping them with the skills necessary to conduct rigorous and impactful research. Each workshop day is focused on qualitative and quantitative research designs, econometrics, data collection techniques, data analysis methods, and the ethical considerations involved in conducting research. The sessions deal with hands-on training and group discussions, allowing research scholars to actively engage with the material and apply what they learned to real-world scenarios. Hands-on sessions in R, SPSS, Strata, Atlas.ti will be dealt with, enabling participants an opportunity to discuss and refine their methodologies under the guidance of resource persons. This interactive format will not only enhance their understanding but also foster collaboration among participating researchers. The workshop will conclude with a panel discussion on the future of Social Sciences research, where experts will emphasize the importance of innovative approaches and interdisciplinary research. Participants will leave the workshop with a deeper knowledge of research methods, new project ideas, and connections with fellow researchers that will last well beyond the event. The success of this workshop will underscore the ongoing need for such international collaborations in advancing research in the Social Sciences areas.

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New research finds nearly 19% increase in cases of Type 2 diabetes over a decade

New research found a nearly 19% increase in cases of Type 2 diabetes between 2012 and 2022.

More than one in five individuals aged 65 or older had the condition, and the same age group was more than 10 times as likely to be diagnosed with diabetes than people in the 18 to 24 age bracket, according to a new study from the University of Georgia published in the Diabetes, Obesity and Metabolism journal.

There were disparities in the prevalence of the disease between sociodemographic groups, showing higher rates among racial and ethnic minorities in the results of the study.

Where people lived in the U.S. also showed a difference in the number of cases – with the Midwest and South experiencing more pronounced increases, the researchers said. Specifically, 10 states saw increases of 25% or more over the decade-long study period: Arkansas, Kentucky, Nebraska, Texas, Alabama, Minnesota, Illinois, West Virginia, Delaware and Massachusetts.

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The study also noted a correlation between cases of diabetes and levels of income. People with higher incomes were 41% less likely to be diagnosed with diabetes.

Lastly, the research confirmed what is already known: Obesity is linked to a higher risk of diabetes and addressing the obesity epidemic is a crucial step in combating the disease.

One way health experts are looking to address obesity is through certain medications, like Zepbound. Maker of the drug, Eli Lilly, just released the results of a 3-year study that shows its tirzepatide medication reduced the risk of developing Type 2 diabetes by 94% in adults with pre-diabetes.

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However, researchers at the University of Georgia said, “Promoting healthy eating habits, increasing physical activity and implementing community-based interventions to support weight management can play a significant role in reducing diabetes prevalence.”

The study on the prevalence of Type 2 diabetes in society was observational, using data from the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System, which is an ongoing health survey involving more than 400,000 adult interviews each year.

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The goal was to examine national trends and disparities in self-reported diabetes cases to increase the comprehension of the risk factors – insight that researchers said is “crucial” for developing focused prevention strategies.

“Improving access to quality care, implementing diabetes prevention programs focusing on high-risk groups, and addressing social determinants through multilevel interventions may help curb the diabetes epidemic in the United States,” researchers said in the study.

According to the University of Virginia Health , Type 2 diabetes is more common and often associated with insulin resistance and obesity whereas Type 1 diabetes is an autoimmune disease.

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Eating Red And Processed Meat—And Even Chicken—Could Increase Risk Of Diabetes, Research Finds

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Consuming meat, particularly red and processed meat, and even poultry like chicken and turkey may increase the risk of developing type 2 diabetes in the future, according to a new study published on Tuesday, adding to growing evidence linking meat and ultra-processed foods to health issues including heart disease, cancer, depression, anxiety and even premature death.

Red meat is associated with a higher risk of type 2 diabetes, researchers found.

Consuming processed meat and unprocessed red meat regularly is associated with a higher risk of developing type 2 diabetes, according to peer reviewed published in The Lancet Diabetes and Endocrinology medical journal.

While previous research has indicated eating more processed meat and unprocessed red meat is linked to a higher risk of type 2 diabetes, the researchers said results have been inconclusive and variable, which has led to confusing and often polarizing debates over whether the foods are safe to eat and, if so, in what quantities.

To assess the link between meat and the risk of type 2 diabetes, the team, led by researchers at the University of Cambridge, analyzed existing data from nearly 2 million people across 31 study groups in 20 countries to see whether their eating habits were associated with a risk of type 2 diabetes when accounting for other factors like age, gender, energy intake, body mass index and health-related behaviors.

Habitually eating 50 grams of processed meat a day—roughly equivalent to two slices of ham—was associated with a 15% higher risk of developing type 2 diabetes in the next 10 years, the researchers found, and consuming 100 grams of unprocessed red meat a day—the equivalent of a small steak—was associated with a 10% higher risk.

Nita Forouhi, a professor of population health and nutrition at the University of Cambridge and a senior author on the paper, said the research “provides the most comprehensive evidence to date” of a link between eating red and processed meat and a higher future risk of type 2 diabetes.

“It supports recommendations to limit the consumption of processed meat and unprocessed red meat to reduce type 2 diabetes cases in the population,” added Forouhi.

Is It Safe To Eat Other Meat Like Chicken And Turkey?

Poultry such as chicken, turkey and duck is often touted as a healthier protein source to red and processed meats. The idea is supported by research, which indicates lower risks for many of the health issues linked to red and processed meat consumption like cancer , heart disease and diabetes , but the issue is a comparative one and it does not mean eating poultry is without risk. Research increasingly indicates regular poultry meat consumption is linked to harmful health effects like gastro-oesophageal reflux disease, gallbladder disease and diabetes. Research on this association is more limited, the researchers noted, taking the opportunity to investigate the potential link as well. They found habitual consumption of 100 grams of poultry a day was associated with an 8% higher risk of developing type 2 diabetes over the next 10 years. However, Forouhi warned the evidence linking poultry consumption and diabetes was much weaker than that for red and processed meat when subjected to further analytical scrutiny. “While our findings provide more comprehensive evidence on the association between poultry consumption and type 2 diabetes than was previously available, the link remains uncertain and needs to be investigated further,” Forouhi said.

Surprising Fact

While often considered a “white meat” alongside poultry like chicken, experts and regulators say pork is a “red meat” like beef, veal and lamb. The U.S. Department of Agriculture says the distinction is determined by the amount of the oxygen-carrying protein myoglobin is in the meat, which determines the color of the meat. Pork is considered red meat because it contains more myoglobin than chicken or fish.

What To Watch For

Growing evidence on the negative health associations of eating different meats has ignited campaigns to limit the consumption of red and processed meat, and sometimes meat in general, as a matter of public health and to reduce the burden of diseases like diabetes. In recent years, this health-driven messaging has been joined by a more climate-focused approach, urging people to limit meat consumption as part of reducing their carbon footprint and tackling the climate crisis. Research has also increasingly identified potential health problems like heart disease and early death linked to ultraprocessed foods, including plant-based ultraprocessed foods .

What We Don’t Know

Most research between food consumption and various health risks are observational in nature. This means causal relationships are very hard to determine. More research—much of which would be difficult or impossible to conduct in humans—is needed to establish causal claims like reducing red meat intake will reduce the risk of developing diabetes.

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Study assesses seizure risk from stimulating thalamus

In awake mice, researchers found that even low stimulation currents could sometimes still cause electrographic seizures

The idea of electrically stimulating a brain region called the central thalamus has gained traction among researchers and clinicians because it can help arouse subjects from unconscious states induced by traumatic brain injury or anesthesia, and can boost cognition and performance in awake animals. But the method, called CT-DBS, can have a side effect: seizures. A new study by researchers at MIT and Massachusetts General Hospital (MGH) who were testing the method in awake mice, quantifies the probability of seizures at different stimulation currents and cautions that they sometimes occurred even at low levels.

“Understanding production and prevalence of this type of seizure activity is important because brain stimulation-based therapies are becoming more widely used,” said co-senior author Emery N. Brown, Edward Hood Taplin Professor of Medical Engineering and Computational Neuroscience in The Picower Institute for Learning and Memory, the Institute for Medical Engineering and Science, the Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences and the Center for Brains Minds and Machines (CBMM) at MIT.

In the brain, the seizures associated with CT-DBS occur as “electrographic seizures” which are bursts of voltage among neurons across a broad spectrum of frequencies. Behaviorally, they manifest as “absence seizures” in which the subject appears to take on a blank stare and freezes for about 10-20 seconds.

In their study, the researchers were hoping to determine a CT-DBS stimulation current— in a clinically relevant range of under 200 microamps—below which seizures could be reliably avoided.

In search of that ideal current, they developed a protocol of starting brief bouts of CT-DBS at 1 microamp and then incrementally ramping the current up to 200 microamps until they found a threshold where an electrographic seizure occurred. Once they found that threshold, then they tested a longer bout of stimulation at the next lowest current level in hopes that an electrographic seizure wouldn’t occur. They did this for a variety of different stimulation frequencies. To their surprise, electrographic seizures still occurred 2.2 percent of the time during those longer stimulation trials (i.e. 22 times out of 996 tests) and in 10 out of 12 mice. At just 20 microamps, mice still experienced seizures in 3 out of 244 tests, a 1.2 percent rate.

“This is something that we needed to report because this was really surprising,” said co-lead author Francisco Flores, a research affiliate in The Picower Institute and CBMM, and an instructor in anesthesiology at MGH where Brown is also an anesthesiologist. Isabella Dalla Betta, a technical associate in The Picower Institute, co-led the study published in Brain Stimulation .

Stimulation frequency didn’t matter for seizure risk but the rate of electrographic seizures increased as the current level increased. For instance, it happened in 5 out of 190 tests at 50 microamps, and 2 out of 65 tests at 100 microamps. The researchers also found that when an electrographic seizure occurred, it did so more quickly at higher currents than at lower levels. Finally, they also saw that seizures happened more quickly if they stimulated the thalamus on both sides of the brain vs. just one side. Some mice exhibited behaviors similar to absence seizure, though others became hyperactive.

It is not clear why some mice experienced electrographic seizures at just 20 microamps while two mice did not experience the seizures even at 200. Flores speculated that there may be different brain states that change the predisposition to seizures amid stimulation of the thalamus. Notably, seizures are not typically observed in humans who receive CT-DBS while in a minimally conscious state after a traumatic brain injury or in animals who are under anesthesia. Flores said the next stage of the research would aim to discern what the relevant brain states may be.

In the meantime, the study authors wrote, “EEG should be closely monitored for electrographic seizures when performing CT-DBS, especially in awake subjects.”

The paper’s co-senior author is Matt Wilson, Sherman Fairchild Professor in The Picower Institute, CBMM, and the departments of Biology and Brain and Cognitive Sciences. In addition to Dalla Betta, Flores, Brown and Wilson, the study’s other authors are John Tauber, David Schreier, and Emily Stephen.

Support for the research came from The JPB Foundation, The Picower Institute for Learning and Memory, George J. Elbaum (MIT ‘59, SM ‘63, PhD ‘67), Mimi Jensen, Diane B. Greene (MIT, SM ‘78), Mendel Rosenblum, Bill Swanson, annual donors to the Anesthesia Initiative Fund; and the National Institutes of Health.

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