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• What Is Qualitative Research? | Methods & Examples

What Is Qualitative Research? | Methods & Examples

Published on June 19, 2020 by Pritha Bhandari . Revised on June 22, 2023.

Qualitative research involves collecting and analyzing non-numerical data (e.g., text, video, or audio) to understand concepts, opinions, or experiences. It can be used to gather in-depth insights into a problem or generate new ideas for research.

Qualitative research is the opposite of quantitative research , which involves collecting and analyzing numerical data for statistical analysis.

Qualitative research is commonly used in the humanities and social sciences, in subjects such as anthropology, sociology, education, health sciences, history, etc.

• How does social media shape body image in teenagers?
• How do children and adults interpret healthy eating in the UK?
• What factors influence employee retention in a large organization?
• How is anxiety experienced around the world?
• How can teachers integrate social issues into science curriculums?

Table of contents

Approaches to qualitative research, qualitative research methods, qualitative data analysis, advantages of qualitative research, disadvantages of qualitative research, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about qualitative research.

Qualitative research is used to understand how people experience the world. While there are many approaches to qualitative research, they tend to be flexible and focus on retaining rich meaning when interpreting data.

Common approaches include grounded theory, ethnography , action research , phenomenological research, and narrative research. They share some similarities, but emphasize different aims and perspectives.

Note that qualitative research is at risk for certain research biases including the Hawthorne effect , observer bias , recall bias , and social desirability bias . While not always totally avoidable, awareness of potential biases as you collect and analyze your data can prevent them from impacting your work too much.

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Each of the research approaches involve using one or more data collection methods . These are some of the most common qualitative methods:

• Observations: recording what you have seen, heard, or encountered in detailed field notes.
• Interviews:  personally asking people questions in one-on-one conversations.
• Focus groups: asking questions and generating discussion among a group of people.
• Surveys : distributing questionnaires with open-ended questions.
• Secondary research: collecting existing data in the form of texts, images, audio or video recordings, etc.
• You take field notes with observations and reflect on your own experiences of the company culture.
• You distribute open-ended surveys to employees across all the company’s offices by email to find out if the culture varies across locations.
• You conduct in-depth interviews with employees in your office to learn about their experiences and perspectives in greater detail.

Qualitative researchers often consider themselves “instruments” in research because all observations, interpretations and analyses are filtered through their own personal lens.

For this reason, when writing up your methodology for qualitative research, it’s important to reflect on your approach and to thoroughly explain the choices you made in collecting and analyzing the data.

Qualitative data can take the form of texts, photos, videos and audio. For example, you might be working with interview transcripts, survey responses, fieldnotes, or recordings from natural settings.

Most types of qualitative data analysis share the same five steps:

• Prepare and organize your data. This may mean transcribing interviews or typing up fieldnotes.
• Review and explore your data. Examine the data for patterns or repeated ideas that emerge.
• Develop a data coding system. Based on your initial ideas, establish a set of codes that you can apply to categorize your data.
• Assign codes to the data. For example, in qualitative survey analysis, this may mean going through each participant’s responses and tagging them with codes in a spreadsheet. As you go through your data, you can create new codes to add to your system if necessary.
• Identify recurring themes. Link codes together into cohesive, overarching themes.

There are several specific approaches to analyzing qualitative data. Although these methods share similar processes, they emphasize different concepts.

Qualitative research often tries to preserve the voice and perspective of participants and can be adjusted as new research questions arise. Qualitative research is good for:

• Flexibility

The data collection and analysis process can be adapted as new ideas or patterns emerge. They are not rigidly decided beforehand.

• Natural settings

Data collection occurs in real-world contexts or in naturalistic ways.

• Meaningful insights

Detailed descriptions of people’s experiences, feelings and perceptions can be used in designing, testing or improving systems or products.

• Generation of new ideas

Open-ended responses mean that researchers can uncover novel problems or opportunities that they wouldn’t have thought of otherwise.

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Researchers must consider practical and theoretical limitations in analyzing and interpreting their data. Qualitative research suffers from:

• Unreliability

The real-world setting often makes qualitative research unreliable because of uncontrolled factors that affect the data.

• Subjectivity

Due to the researcher’s primary role in analyzing and interpreting data, qualitative research cannot be replicated . The researcher decides what is important and what is irrelevant in data analysis, so interpretations of the same data can vary greatly.

• Limited generalizability

Small samples are often used to gather detailed data about specific contexts. Despite rigorous analysis procedures, it is difficult to draw generalizable conclusions because the data may be biased and unrepresentative of the wider population .

• Labor-intensive

Although software can be used to manage and record large amounts of text, data analysis often has to be checked or performed manually.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Chi square goodness of fit test
• Degrees of freedom
• Null hypothesis
• Discourse analysis
• Control groups
• Mixed methods research
• Non-probability sampling
• Quantitative research
• Inclusion and exclusion criteria

Research bias

• Rosenthal effect
• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Selection bias
• Negativity bias
• Status quo bias

Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.

Quantitative methods allow you to systematically measure variables and test hypotheses . Qualitative methods allow you to explore concepts and experiences in more detail.

There are five common approaches to qualitative research :

• Grounded theory involves collecting data in order to develop new theories.
• Ethnography involves immersing yourself in a group or organization to understand its culture.
• Narrative research involves interpreting stories to understand how people make sense of their experiences and perceptions.
• Phenomenological research involves investigating phenomena through people’s lived experiences.
• Action research links theory and practice in several cycles to drive innovative changes.

Data collection is the systematic process by which observations or measurements are gathered in research. It is used in many different contexts by academics, governments, businesses, and other organizations.

There are various approaches to qualitative data analysis , but they all share five steps in common:

• Prepare and organize your data.
• Review and explore your data.
• Develop a data coding system.
• Assign codes to the data.
• Identify recurring themes.

The specifics of each step depend on the focus of the analysis. Some common approaches include textual analysis , thematic analysis , and discourse analysis .

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Home » Qualitative Research – Methods, Analysis Types and Guide

Qualitative Research – Methods, Analysis Types and Guide

Table of Contents

Qualitative Research

Qualitative research is a type of research methodology that focuses on exploring and understanding people’s beliefs, attitudes, behaviors, and experiences through the collection and analysis of non-numerical data. It seeks to answer research questions through the examination of subjective data, such as interviews, focus groups, observations, and textual analysis.

Qualitative research aims to uncover the meaning and significance of social phenomena, and it typically involves a more flexible and iterative approach to data collection and analysis compared to quantitative research. Qualitative research is often used in fields such as sociology, anthropology, psychology, and education.

Qualitative Research Methods

Qualitative Research Methods are as follows:

One-to-One Interview

This method involves conducting an interview with a single participant to gain a detailed understanding of their experiences, attitudes, and beliefs. One-to-one interviews can be conducted in-person, over the phone, or through video conferencing. The interviewer typically uses open-ended questions to encourage the participant to share their thoughts and feelings. One-to-one interviews are useful for gaining detailed insights into individual experiences.

Focus Groups

This method involves bringing together a group of people to discuss a specific topic in a structured setting. The focus group is led by a moderator who guides the discussion and encourages participants to share their thoughts and opinions. Focus groups are useful for generating ideas and insights, exploring social norms and attitudes, and understanding group dynamics.

Ethnographic Studies

This method involves immersing oneself in a culture or community to gain a deep understanding of its norms, beliefs, and practices. Ethnographic studies typically involve long-term fieldwork and observation, as well as interviews and document analysis. Ethnographic studies are useful for understanding the cultural context of social phenomena and for gaining a holistic understanding of complex social processes.

Text Analysis

This method involves analyzing written or spoken language to identify patterns and themes. Text analysis can be quantitative or qualitative. Qualitative text analysis involves close reading and interpretation of texts to identify recurring themes, concepts, and patterns. Text analysis is useful for understanding media messages, public discourse, and cultural trends.

This method involves an in-depth examination of a single person, group, or event to gain an understanding of complex phenomena. Case studies typically involve a combination of data collection methods, such as interviews, observations, and document analysis, to provide a comprehensive understanding of the case. Case studies are useful for exploring unique or rare cases, and for generating hypotheses for further research.

Process of Observation

This method involves systematically observing and recording behaviors and interactions in natural settings. The observer may take notes, use audio or video recordings, or use other methods to document what they see. Process of observation is useful for understanding social interactions, cultural practices, and the context in which behaviors occur.

Record Keeping

This method involves keeping detailed records of observations, interviews, and other data collected during the research process. Record keeping is essential for ensuring the accuracy and reliability of the data, and for providing a basis for analysis and interpretation.

This method involves collecting data from a large sample of participants through a structured questionnaire. Surveys can be conducted in person, over the phone, through mail, or online. Surveys are useful for collecting data on attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors, and for identifying patterns and trends in a population.

Qualitative data analysis is a process of turning unstructured data into meaningful insights. It involves extracting and organizing information from sources like interviews, focus groups, and surveys. The goal is to understand people’s attitudes, behaviors, and motivations

Qualitative Research Analysis Methods

Qualitative Research analysis methods involve a systematic approach to interpreting and making sense of the data collected in qualitative research. Here are some common qualitative data analysis methods:

Thematic Analysis

This method involves identifying patterns or themes in the data that are relevant to the research question. The researcher reviews the data, identifies keywords or phrases, and groups them into categories or themes. Thematic analysis is useful for identifying patterns across multiple data sources and for generating new insights into the research topic.

Content Analysis

This method involves analyzing the content of written or spoken language to identify key themes or concepts. Content analysis can be quantitative or qualitative. Qualitative content analysis involves close reading and interpretation of texts to identify recurring themes, concepts, and patterns. Content analysis is useful for identifying patterns in media messages, public discourse, and cultural trends.

Discourse Analysis

This method involves analyzing language to understand how it constructs meaning and shapes social interactions. Discourse analysis can involve a variety of methods, such as conversation analysis, critical discourse analysis, and narrative analysis. Discourse analysis is useful for understanding how language shapes social interactions, cultural norms, and power relationships.

Grounded Theory Analysis

This method involves developing a theory or explanation based on the data collected. Grounded theory analysis starts with the data and uses an iterative process of coding and analysis to identify patterns and themes in the data. The theory or explanation that emerges is grounded in the data, rather than preconceived hypotheses. Grounded theory analysis is useful for understanding complex social phenomena and for generating new theoretical insights.

Narrative Analysis

This method involves analyzing the stories or narratives that participants share to gain insights into their experiences, attitudes, and beliefs. Narrative analysis can involve a variety of methods, such as structural analysis, thematic analysis, and discourse analysis. Narrative analysis is useful for understanding how individuals construct their identities, make sense of their experiences, and communicate their values and beliefs.

Phenomenological Analysis

This method involves analyzing how individuals make sense of their experiences and the meanings they attach to them. Phenomenological analysis typically involves in-depth interviews with participants to explore their experiences in detail. Phenomenological analysis is useful for understanding subjective experiences and for developing a rich understanding of human consciousness.

Comparative Analysis

This method involves comparing and contrasting data across different cases or groups to identify similarities and differences. Comparative analysis can be used to identify patterns or themes that are common across multiple cases, as well as to identify unique or distinctive features of individual cases. Comparative analysis is useful for understanding how social phenomena vary across different contexts and groups.

Applications of Qualitative Research

Qualitative research has many applications across different fields and industries. Here are some examples of how qualitative research is used:

• Market Research: Qualitative research is often used in market research to understand consumer attitudes, behaviors, and preferences. Researchers conduct focus groups and one-on-one interviews with consumers to gather insights into their experiences and perceptions of products and services.
• Health Care: Qualitative research is used in health care to explore patient experiences and perspectives on health and illness. Researchers conduct in-depth interviews with patients and their families to gather information on their experiences with different health care providers and treatments.
• Education: Qualitative research is used in education to understand student experiences and to develop effective teaching strategies. Researchers conduct classroom observations and interviews with students and teachers to gather insights into classroom dynamics and instructional practices.
• Social Work : Qualitative research is used in social work to explore social problems and to develop interventions to address them. Researchers conduct in-depth interviews with individuals and families to understand their experiences with poverty, discrimination, and other social problems.
• Anthropology : Qualitative research is used in anthropology to understand different cultures and societies. Researchers conduct ethnographic studies and observe and interview members of different cultural groups to gain insights into their beliefs, practices, and social structures.
• Psychology : Qualitative research is used in psychology to understand human behavior and mental processes. Researchers conduct in-depth interviews with individuals to explore their thoughts, feelings, and experiences.
• Public Policy : Qualitative research is used in public policy to explore public attitudes and to inform policy decisions. Researchers conduct focus groups and one-on-one interviews with members of the public to gather insights into their perspectives on different policy issues.

How to Conduct Qualitative Research

Here are some general steps for conducting qualitative research:

• Identify your research question: Qualitative research starts with a research question or set of questions that you want to explore. This question should be focused and specific, but also broad enough to allow for exploration and discovery.
• Select your research design: There are different types of qualitative research designs, including ethnography, case study, grounded theory, and phenomenology. You should select a design that aligns with your research question and that will allow you to gather the data you need to answer your research question.
• Recruit participants: Once you have your research question and design, you need to recruit participants. The number of participants you need will depend on your research design and the scope of your research. You can recruit participants through advertisements, social media, or through personal networks.
• Collect data: There are different methods for collecting qualitative data, including interviews, focus groups, observation, and document analysis. You should select the method or methods that align with your research design and that will allow you to gather the data you need to answer your research question.
• Analyze data: Once you have collected your data, you need to analyze it. This involves reviewing your data, identifying patterns and themes, and developing codes to organize your data. You can use different software programs to help you analyze your data, or you can do it manually.
• Interpret data: Once you have analyzed your data, you need to interpret it. This involves making sense of the patterns and themes you have identified, and developing insights and conclusions that answer your research question. You should be guided by your research question and use your data to support your conclusions.
• Communicate results: Once you have interpreted your data, you need to communicate your results. This can be done through academic papers, presentations, or reports. You should be clear and concise in your communication, and use examples and quotes from your data to support your findings.

Examples of Qualitative Research

Here are some real-time examples of qualitative research:

• Customer Feedback: A company may conduct qualitative research to understand the feedback and experiences of its customers. This may involve conducting focus groups or one-on-one interviews with customers to gather insights into their attitudes, behaviors, and preferences.
• Healthcare : A healthcare provider may conduct qualitative research to explore patient experiences and perspectives on health and illness. This may involve conducting in-depth interviews with patients and their families to gather information on their experiences with different health care providers and treatments.
• Education : An educational institution may conduct qualitative research to understand student experiences and to develop effective teaching strategies. This may involve conducting classroom observations and interviews with students and teachers to gather insights into classroom dynamics and instructional practices.
• Social Work: A social worker may conduct qualitative research to explore social problems and to develop interventions to address them. This may involve conducting in-depth interviews with individuals and families to understand their experiences with poverty, discrimination, and other social problems.
• Anthropology : An anthropologist may conduct qualitative research to understand different cultures and societies. This may involve conducting ethnographic studies and observing and interviewing members of different cultural groups to gain insights into their beliefs, practices, and social structures.
• Psychology : A psychologist may conduct qualitative research to understand human behavior and mental processes. This may involve conducting in-depth interviews with individuals to explore their thoughts, feelings, and experiences.
• Public Policy: A government agency or non-profit organization may conduct qualitative research to explore public attitudes and to inform policy decisions. This may involve conducting focus groups and one-on-one interviews with members of the public to gather insights into their perspectives on different policy issues.

Purpose of Qualitative Research

The purpose of qualitative research is to explore and understand the subjective experiences, behaviors, and perspectives of individuals or groups in a particular context. Unlike quantitative research, which focuses on numerical data and statistical analysis, qualitative research aims to provide in-depth, descriptive information that can help researchers develop insights and theories about complex social phenomena.

Qualitative research can serve multiple purposes, including:

• Exploring new or emerging phenomena : Qualitative research can be useful for exploring new or emerging phenomena, such as new technologies or social trends. This type of research can help researchers develop a deeper understanding of these phenomena and identify potential areas for further study.
• Understanding complex social phenomena : Qualitative research can be useful for exploring complex social phenomena, such as cultural beliefs, social norms, or political processes. This type of research can help researchers develop a more nuanced understanding of these phenomena and identify factors that may influence them.
• Generating new theories or hypotheses: Qualitative research can be useful for generating new theories or hypotheses about social phenomena. By gathering rich, detailed data about individuals’ experiences and perspectives, researchers can develop insights that may challenge existing theories or lead to new lines of inquiry.
• Providing context for quantitative data: Qualitative research can be useful for providing context for quantitative data. By gathering qualitative data alongside quantitative data, researchers can develop a more complete understanding of complex social phenomena and identify potential explanations for quantitative findings.

When to use Qualitative Research

Here are some situations where qualitative research may be appropriate:

• Exploring a new area: If little is known about a particular topic, qualitative research can help to identify key issues, generate hypotheses, and develop new theories.
• Understanding complex phenomena: Qualitative research can be used to investigate complex social, cultural, or organizational phenomena that are difficult to measure quantitatively.
• Investigating subjective experiences: Qualitative research is particularly useful for investigating the subjective experiences of individuals or groups, such as their attitudes, beliefs, values, or emotions.
• Conducting formative research: Qualitative research can be used in the early stages of a research project to develop research questions, identify potential research participants, and refine research methods.
• Evaluating interventions or programs: Qualitative research can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of interventions or programs by collecting data on participants’ experiences, attitudes, and behaviors.

Characteristics of Qualitative Research

Qualitative research is characterized by several key features, including:

• Focus on subjective experience: Qualitative research is concerned with understanding the subjective experiences, beliefs, and perspectives of individuals or groups in a particular context. Researchers aim to explore the meanings that people attach to their experiences and to understand the social and cultural factors that shape these meanings.
• Use of open-ended questions: Qualitative research relies on open-ended questions that allow participants to provide detailed, in-depth responses. Researchers seek to elicit rich, descriptive data that can provide insights into participants’ experiences and perspectives.
• Sampling-based on purpose and diversity: Qualitative research often involves purposive sampling, in which participants are selected based on specific criteria related to the research question. Researchers may also seek to include participants with diverse experiences and perspectives to capture a range of viewpoints.
• Data collection through multiple methods: Qualitative research typically involves the use of multiple data collection methods, such as in-depth interviews, focus groups, and observation. This allows researchers to gather rich, detailed data from multiple sources, which can provide a more complete picture of participants’ experiences and perspectives.
• Inductive data analysis: Qualitative research relies on inductive data analysis, in which researchers develop theories and insights based on the data rather than testing pre-existing hypotheses. Researchers use coding and thematic analysis to identify patterns and themes in the data and to develop theories and explanations based on these patterns.
• Emphasis on researcher reflexivity: Qualitative research recognizes the importance of the researcher’s role in shaping the research process and outcomes. Researchers are encouraged to reflect on their own biases and assumptions and to be transparent about their role in the research process.

Advantages of Qualitative Research

Qualitative research offers several advantages over other research methods, including:

• Depth and detail: Qualitative research allows researchers to gather rich, detailed data that provides a deeper understanding of complex social phenomena. Through in-depth interviews, focus groups, and observation, researchers can gather detailed information about participants’ experiences and perspectives that may be missed by other research methods.
• Flexibility : Qualitative research is a flexible approach that allows researchers to adapt their methods to the research question and context. Researchers can adjust their research methods in real-time to gather more information or explore unexpected findings.
• Contextual understanding: Qualitative research is well-suited to exploring the social and cultural context in which individuals or groups are situated. Researchers can gather information about cultural norms, social structures, and historical events that may influence participants’ experiences and perspectives.
• Participant perspective : Qualitative research prioritizes the perspective of participants, allowing researchers to explore subjective experiences and understand the meanings that participants attach to their experiences.
• Theory development: Qualitative research can contribute to the development of new theories and insights about complex social phenomena. By gathering rich, detailed data and using inductive data analysis, researchers can develop new theories and explanations that may challenge existing understandings.
• Validity : Qualitative research can offer high validity by using multiple data collection methods, purposive and diverse sampling, and researcher reflexivity. This can help ensure that findings are credible and trustworthy.

Limitations of Qualitative Research

Qualitative research also has some limitations, including:

• Subjectivity : Qualitative research relies on the subjective interpretation of researchers, which can introduce bias into the research process. The researcher’s perspective, beliefs, and experiences can influence the way data is collected, analyzed, and interpreted.
• Limited generalizability: Qualitative research typically involves small, purposive samples that may not be representative of larger populations. This limits the generalizability of findings to other contexts or populations.
• Time-consuming: Qualitative research can be a time-consuming process, requiring significant resources for data collection, analysis, and interpretation.
• Resource-intensive: Qualitative research may require more resources than other research methods, including specialized training for researchers, specialized software for data analysis, and transcription services.
• Limited reliability: Qualitative research may be less reliable than quantitative research, as it relies on the subjective interpretation of researchers. This can make it difficult to replicate findings or compare results across different studies.
• Ethics and confidentiality: Qualitative research involves collecting sensitive information from participants, which raises ethical concerns about confidentiality and informed consent. Researchers must take care to protect the privacy and confidentiality of participants and obtain informed consent.

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The word qualitative implies an emphasis on the qualities of entities and on processes and meanings that are not experimentally examined or measured [if measured at all] in terms of quantity, amount, intensity, or frequency. Qualitative researchers stress the socially constructed nature of reality, the intimate relationship between the researcher and what is studied, and the situational constraints that shape inquiry. Such researchers emphasize the value-laden nature of inquiry. They seek answers to questions that stress how social experience is created and given meaning. In contrast, quantitative studies emphasize the measurement and analysis of causal relationships between variables, not processes. Qualitative forms of inquiry are considered by many social and behavioral scientists to be as much a perspective on how to approach investigating a research problem as it is a method.

Denzin, Norman. K. and Yvonna S. Lincoln. “Introduction: The Discipline and Practice of Qualitative Research.” In The Sage Handbook of Qualitative Research . Norman. K. Denzin and Yvonna S. Lincoln, eds. 3 rd edition. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2005), p. 10.

Characteristics of Qualitative Research

Below are the three key elements that define a qualitative research study and the applied forms each take in the investigation of a research problem.

• Naturalistic -- refers to studying real-world situations as they unfold naturally; non-manipulative and non-controlling; the researcher is open to whatever emerges [i.e., there is a lack of predetermined constraints on findings].
• Emergent -- acceptance of adapting inquiry as understanding deepens and/or situations change; the researcher avoids rigid designs that eliminate responding to opportunities to pursue new paths of discovery as they emerge.
• Purposeful -- cases for study [e.g., people, organizations, communities, cultures, events, critical incidences] are selected because they are “information rich” and illuminative. That is, they offer useful manifestations of the phenomenon of interest; sampling is aimed at insight about the phenomenon, not empirical generalization derived from a sample and applied to a population.

The Collection of Data

• Data -- observations yield a detailed, "thick description" [in-depth understanding]; interviews capture direct quotations about people’s personal perspectives and lived experiences; often derived from carefully conducted case studies and review of material culture.
• Personal experience and engagement -- researcher has direct contact with and gets close to the people, situation, and phenomenon under investigation; the researcher’s personal experiences and insights are an important part of the inquiry and critical to understanding the phenomenon.
• Empathic neutrality -- an empathic stance in working with study respondents seeks vicarious understanding without judgment [neutrality] by showing openness, sensitivity, respect, awareness, and responsiveness; in observation, it means being fully present [mindfulness].
• Dynamic systems -- there is attention to process; assumes change is ongoing, whether the focus is on an individual, an organization, a community, or an entire culture, therefore, the researcher is mindful of and attentive to system and situational dynamics.

The Analysis

• Unique case orientation -- assumes that each case is special and unique; the first level of analysis is being true to, respecting, and capturing the details of the individual cases being studied; cross-case analysis follows from and depends upon the quality of individual case studies.
• Inductive analysis -- immersion in the details and specifics of the data to discover important patterns, themes, and inter-relationships; begins by exploring, then confirming findings, guided by analytical principles rather than rules.
• Holistic perspective -- the whole phenomenon under study is understood as a complex system that is more than the sum of its parts; the focus is on complex interdependencies and system dynamics that cannot be reduced in any meaningful way to linear, cause and effect relationships and/or a few discrete variables.
• Context sensitive -- places findings in a social, historical, and temporal context; researcher is careful about [even dubious of] the possibility or meaningfulness of generalizations across time and space; emphasizes careful comparative case study analysis and extrapolating patterns for possible transferability and adaptation in new settings.
• Voice, perspective, and reflexivity -- the qualitative methodologist owns and is reflective about her or his own voice and perspective; a credible voice conveys authenticity and trustworthiness; complete objectivity being impossible and pure subjectivity undermining credibility, the researcher's focus reflects a balance between understanding and depicting the world authentically in all its complexity and of being self-analytical, politically aware, and reflexive in consciousness.

Berg, Bruce Lawrence. Qualitative Research Methods for the Social Sciences . 8th edition. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon, 2012; Denzin, Norman. K. and Yvonna S. Lincoln. Handbook of Qualitative Research . 2nd edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2000; Marshall, Catherine and Gretchen B. Rossman. Designing Qualitative Research . 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1995; Merriam, Sharan B. Qualitative Research: A Guide to Design and Implementation . San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 2009.

Basic Research Design for Qualitative Studies

Unlike positivist or experimental research that utilizes a linear and one-directional sequence of design steps, there is considerable variation in how a qualitative research study is organized. In general, qualitative researchers attempt to describe and interpret human behavior based primarily on the words of selected individuals [a.k.a., “informants” or “respondents”] and/or through the interpretation of their material culture or occupied space. There is a reflexive process underpinning every stage of a qualitative study to ensure that researcher biases, presuppositions, and interpretations are clearly evident, thus ensuring that the reader is better able to interpret the overall validity of the research. According to Maxwell (2009), there are five, not necessarily ordered or sequential, components in qualitative research designs. How they are presented depends upon the research philosophy and theoretical framework of the study, the methods chosen, and the general assumptions underpinning the study. Goals Describe the central research problem being addressed but avoid describing any anticipated outcomes. Questions to ask yourself are: Why is your study worth doing? What issues do you want to clarify, and what practices and policies do you want it to influence? Why do you want to conduct this study, and why should the reader care about the results? Conceptual Framework Questions to ask yourself are: What do you think is going on with the issues, settings, or people you plan to study? What theories, beliefs, and prior research findings will guide or inform your research, and what literature, preliminary studies, and personal experiences will you draw upon for understanding the people or issues you are studying? Note to not only report the results of other studies in your review of the literature, but note the methods used as well. If appropriate, describe why earlier studies using quantitative methods were inadequate in addressing the research problem. Research Questions Usually there is a research problem that frames your qualitative study and that influences your decision about what methods to use, but qualitative designs generally lack an accompanying hypothesis or set of assumptions because the findings are emergent and unpredictable. In this context, more specific research questions are generally the result of an interactive design process rather than the starting point for that process. Questions to ask yourself are: What do you specifically want to learn or understand by conducting this study? What do you not know about the things you are studying that you want to learn? What questions will your research attempt to answer, and how are these questions related to one another? Methods Structured approaches to applying a method or methods to your study help to ensure that there is comparability of data across sources and researchers and, thus, they can be useful in answering questions that deal with differences between phenomena and the explanation for these differences [variance questions]. An unstructured approach allows the researcher to focus on the particular phenomena studied. This facilitates an understanding of the processes that led to specific outcomes, trading generalizability and comparability for internal validity and contextual and evaluative understanding. Questions to ask yourself are: What will you actually do in conducting this study? What approaches and techniques will you use to collect and analyze your data, and how do these constitute an integrated strategy? Validity In contrast to quantitative studies where the goal is to design, in advance, “controls” such as formal comparisons, sampling strategies, or statistical manipulations to address anticipated and unanticipated threats to validity, qualitative researchers must attempt to rule out most threats to validity after the research has begun by relying on evidence collected during the research process itself in order to effectively argue that any alternative explanations for a phenomenon are implausible. Questions to ask yourself are: How might your results and conclusions be wrong? What are the plausible alternative interpretations and validity threats to these, and how will you deal with these? How can the data that you have, or that you could potentially collect, support or challenge your ideas about what’s going on? Why should we believe your results? Conclusion Although Maxwell does not mention a conclusion as one of the components of a qualitative research design, you should formally conclude your study. Briefly reiterate the goals of your study and the ways in which your research addressed them. Discuss the benefits of your study and how stakeholders can use your results. Also, note the limitations of your study and, if appropriate, place them in the context of areas in need of further research.

Chenail, Ronald J. Introduction to Qualitative Research Design. Nova Southeastern University; Heath, A. W. The Proposal in Qualitative Research. The Qualitative Report 3 (March 1997); Marshall, Catherine and Gretchen B. Rossman. Designing Qualitative Research . 3rd edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1999; Maxwell, Joseph A. "Designing a Qualitative Study." In The SAGE Handbook of Applied Social Research Methods . Leonard Bickman and Debra J. Rog, eds. 2nd ed. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2009), p. 214-253; Qualitative Research Methods. Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Yin, Robert K. Qualitative Research from Start to Finish . 2nd edition. New York: Guilford, 2015.

Strengths of Using Qualitative Methods

The advantage of using qualitative methods is that they generate rich, detailed data that leave the participants' perspectives intact and provide multiple contexts for understanding the phenomenon under study. In this way, qualitative research can be used to vividly demonstrate phenomena or to conduct cross-case comparisons and analysis of individuals or groups.

Among the specific strengths of using qualitative methods to study social science research problems is the ability to:

• Obtain a more realistic view of the lived world that cannot be understood or experienced in numerical data and statistical analysis;
• Provide the researcher with the perspective of the participants of the study through immersion in a culture or situation and as a result of direct interaction with them;
• Allow the researcher to describe existing phenomena and current situations;
• Develop flexible ways to perform data collection, subsequent analysis, and interpretation of collected information;
• Yield results that can be helpful in pioneering new ways of understanding;
• Respond to changes that occur while conducting the study ]e.g., extended fieldwork or observation] and offer the flexibility to shift the focus of the research as a result;
• Provide a holistic view of the phenomena under investigation;
• Respond to local situations, conditions, and needs of participants;
• Interact with the research subjects in their own language and on their own terms; and,
• Create a descriptive capability based on primary and unstructured data.

Anderson, Claire. “Presenting and Evaluating Qualitative Research.” American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education 74 (2010): 1-7; Denzin, Norman. K. and Yvonna S. Lincoln. Handbook of Qualitative Research . 2nd edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2000; Merriam, Sharan B. Qualitative Research: A Guide to Design and Implementation . San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 2009.

Limitations of Using Qualitative Methods

It is very much true that most of the limitations you find in using qualitative research techniques also reflect their inherent strengths . For example, small sample sizes help you investigate research problems in a comprehensive and in-depth manner. However, small sample sizes undermine opportunities to draw useful generalizations from, or to make broad policy recommendations based upon, the findings. Additionally, as the primary instrument of investigation, qualitative researchers are often embedded in the cultures and experiences of others. However, cultural embeddedness increases the opportunity for bias generated from conscious or unconscious assumptions about the study setting to enter into how data is gathered, interpreted, and reported.

Some specific limitations associated with using qualitative methods to study research problems in the social sciences include the following:

• Drifting away from the original objectives of the study in response to the changing nature of the context under which the research is conducted;
• Arriving at different conclusions based on the same information depending on the personal characteristics of the researcher;
• Replication of a study is very difficult;
• Research using human subjects increases the chance of ethical dilemmas that undermine the overall validity of the study;
• An inability to investigate causality between different research phenomena;
• Difficulty in explaining differences in the quality and quantity of information obtained from different respondents and arriving at different, non-consistent conclusions;
• Data gathering and analysis is often time consuming and/or expensive;
• Requires a high level of experience from the researcher to obtain the targeted information from the respondent;
• May lack consistency and reliability because the researcher can employ different probing techniques and the respondent can choose to tell some particular stories and ignore others; and,
• Generation of a significant amount of data that cannot be randomized into manageable parts for analysis.

Research Tip

Human Subject Research and Institutional Review Board Approval

Almost every socio-behavioral study requires you to submit your proposed research plan to an Institutional Review Board. The role of the Board is to evaluate your research proposal and determine whether it will be conducted ethically and under the regulations, institutional polices, and Code of Ethics set forth by the university. The purpose of the review is to protect the rights and welfare of individuals participating in your study. The review is intended to ensure equitable selection of respondents, that you have met the requirements for obtaining informed consent , that there is clear assessment and minimization of risks to participants and to the university [read: no lawsuits!], and that privacy and confidentiality are maintained throughout the research process and beyond. Go to the USC IRB website for detailed information and templates of forms you need to submit before you can proceed. If you are  unsure whether your study is subject to IRB review, consult with your professor or academic advisor.

Chenail, Ronald J. Introduction to Qualitative Research Design. Nova Southeastern University; Labaree, Robert V. "Working Successfully with Your Institutional Review Board: Practical Advice for Academic Librarians." College and Research Libraries News 71 (April 2010): 190-193.

Another Research Tip

Finding Examples of How to Apply Different Types of Research Methods

SAGE publications is a major publisher of studies about how to design and conduct research in the social and behavioral sciences. Their SAGE Research Methods Online and Cases database includes contents from books, articles, encyclopedias, handbooks, and videos covering social science research design and methods including the complete Little Green Book Series of Quantitative Applications in the Social Sciences and the Little Blue Book Series of Qualitative Research techniques. The database also includes case studies outlining the research methods used in real research projects. This is an excellent source for finding definitions of key terms and descriptions of research design and practice, techniques of data gathering, analysis, and reporting, and information about theories of research [e.g., grounded theory]. The database covers both qualitative and quantitative research methods as well as mixed methods approaches to conducting research.

SAGE Research Methods Online and Cases

NOTE :  For a list of online communities, research centers, indispensable learning resources, and personal websites of leading qualitative researchers, GO HERE .

For a list of scholarly journals devoted to the study and application of qualitative research methods, GO HERE .

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• What Is Qualitative Research? | Methods & Examples

What Is Qualitative Research? | Methods & Examples

Published on 4 April 2022 by Pritha Bhandari . Revised on 30 January 2023.

Qualitative research involves collecting and analysing non-numerical data (e.g., text, video, or audio) to understand concepts, opinions, or experiences. It can be used to gather in-depth insights into a problem or generate new ideas for research.

Qualitative research is the opposite of quantitative research , which involves collecting and analysing numerical data for statistical analysis.

Qualitative research is commonly used in the humanities and social sciences, in subjects such as anthropology, sociology, education, health sciences, and history.

• How does social media shape body image in teenagers?
• How do children and adults interpret healthy eating in the UK?
• What factors influence employee retention in a large organisation?
• How is anxiety experienced around the world?
• How can teachers integrate social issues into science curriculums?

Table of contents

Approaches to qualitative research, qualitative research methods, qualitative data analysis, advantages of qualitative research, disadvantages of qualitative research, frequently asked questions about qualitative research.

Qualitative research is used to understand how people experience the world. While there are many approaches to qualitative research, they tend to be flexible and focus on retaining rich meaning when interpreting data.

Common approaches include grounded theory, ethnography, action research, phenomenological research, and narrative research. They share some similarities, but emphasise different aims and perspectives.

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Each of the research approaches involve using one or more data collection methods . These are some of the most common qualitative methods:

• Observations: recording what you have seen, heard, or encountered in detailed field notes.
• Interviews:  personally asking people questions in one-on-one conversations.
• Focus groups: asking questions and generating discussion among a group of people.
• Surveys : distributing questionnaires with open-ended questions.
• Secondary research: collecting existing data in the form of texts, images, audio or video recordings, etc.
• You take field notes with observations and reflect on your own experiences of the company culture.
• You distribute open-ended surveys to employees across all the company’s offices by email to find out if the culture varies across locations.
• You conduct in-depth interviews with employees in your office to learn about their experiences and perspectives in greater detail.

Qualitative researchers often consider themselves ‘instruments’ in research because all observations, interpretations and analyses are filtered through their own personal lens.

For this reason, when writing up your methodology for qualitative research, it’s important to reflect on your approach and to thoroughly explain the choices you made in collecting and analysing the data.

Qualitative data can take the form of texts, photos, videos and audio. For example, you might be working with interview transcripts, survey responses, fieldnotes, or recordings from natural settings.

Most types of qualitative data analysis share the same five steps:

• Prepare and organise your data. This may mean transcribing interviews or typing up fieldnotes.
• Review and explore your data. Examine the data for patterns or repeated ideas that emerge.
• Develop a data coding system. Based on your initial ideas, establish a set of codes that you can apply to categorise your data.
• Assign codes to the data. For example, in qualitative survey analysis, this may mean going through each participant’s responses and tagging them with codes in a spreadsheet. As you go through your data, you can create new codes to add to your system if necessary.
• Identify recurring themes. Link codes together into cohesive, overarching themes.

There are several specific approaches to analysing qualitative data. Although these methods share similar processes, they emphasise different concepts.

Qualitative research often tries to preserve the voice and perspective of participants and can be adjusted as new research questions arise. Qualitative research is good for:

• Flexibility

The data collection and analysis process can be adapted as new ideas or patterns emerge. They are not rigidly decided beforehand.

• Natural settings

Data collection occurs in real-world contexts or in naturalistic ways.

• Meaningful insights

Detailed descriptions of people’s experiences, feelings and perceptions can be used in designing, testing or improving systems or products.

• Generation of new ideas

Open-ended responses mean that researchers can uncover novel problems or opportunities that they wouldn’t have thought of otherwise.

Researchers must consider practical and theoretical limitations in analysing and interpreting their data. Qualitative research suffers from:

• Unreliability

The real-world setting often makes qualitative research unreliable because of uncontrolled factors that affect the data.

• Subjectivity

Due to the researcher’s primary role in analysing and interpreting data, qualitative research cannot be replicated . The researcher decides what is important and what is irrelevant in data analysis, so interpretations of the same data can vary greatly.

• Limited generalisability

Small samples are often used to gather detailed data about specific contexts. Despite rigorous analysis procedures, it is difficult to draw generalisable conclusions because the data may be biased and unrepresentative of the wider population .

• Labour-intensive

Although software can be used to manage and record large amounts of text, data analysis often has to be checked or performed manually.

Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.

Quantitative methods allow you to test a hypothesis by systematically collecting and analysing data, while qualitative methods allow you to explore ideas and experiences in depth.

There are five common approaches to qualitative research :

• Grounded theory involves collecting data in order to develop new theories.
• Ethnography involves immersing yourself in a group or organisation to understand its culture.
• Narrative research involves interpreting stories to understand how people make sense of their experiences and perceptions.
• Phenomenological research involves investigating phenomena through people’s lived experiences.
• Action research links theory and practice in several cycles to drive innovative changes.

Data collection is the systematic process by which observations or measurements are gathered in research. It is used in many different contexts by academics, governments, businesses, and other organisations.

There are various approaches to qualitative data analysis , but they all share five steps in common:

• Prepare and organise your data.
• Review and explore your data.
• Develop a data coding system.
• Assign codes to the data.
• Identify recurring themes.

The specifics of each step depend on the focus of the analysis. Some common approaches include textual analysis , thematic analysis , and discourse analysis .

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• UNC Libraries
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• Writing Up Your Research

Qualitative Research Resources: Writing Up Your Research

Created by health science librarians.

• What is Qualitative Research?
• Qualitative Research Basics
• Special Topics
• Training Opportunities: UNC & Beyond
• Help at UNC
• Qualitative Software for Coding/Analysis
• Software for Audio, Video, Online Surveys
• Finding Qualitative Studies
• Assessing Qualitative Research

About this Page

Writing conventions for qualitative research, sample size/sampling:.

• Integrating Qualitative Research into Systematic Reviews
• Publishing Qualitative Research
• Presenting Qualitative Research
• Qualitative & Libraries: a few gems
• Data Repositories

Why is this information important?

• The conventions of good writing and research reporting are different for qualitative and quantitative research.
• Your article will be more likely to be published if you make sure you follow appropriate conventions in your writing.

On this page you will find the following helpful resources:

• Articles with information on what journal editors look for in qualitative research articles.
• Articles and books on the craft of collating qualitative data into a research article.

These articles provide tips on what journal editors look for when they read qualitative research papers for potential publication.  Also see Assessing Qualitative Research tab in this guide for additional information that may be helpful to authors.

Belgrave, L., D. Zablotsky and M.A. Guadagno.(2002). How do we talk to each other? Writing qualitative research for quantitative readers . Qualitative Health Research , 12(10),1427-1439.

Hunt, Brandon. (2011) Publishing Qualitative Research in Counseling Journals . Journal of Counseling and Development 89(3):296-300.

Fetters, Michael and Dawn Freshwater. (2015). Publishing a Methodological Mixed Methods Research Article. Journal of Mixed Methods Research 9(3): 203-213.

Koch, Lynn C., Tricia Niesz, and Henry McCarthy. (2014). Understanding and Reporting Qualitative Research: An Analytic Review and Recommendations for Submitting Authors. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin 57(3):131-143.

Morrow, Susan L. (2005) Quality and Trustworthiness in Qualitative Research in Counseling Psychology ; Journal of Counseling Psychology 52(2):250-260.

Oliver, Deborah P. (2011) "Rigor in Qualitative Research." Research on Aging 33(4): 359-360.

Sandelowski, M., & Leeman, J. (2012). Writing usable qualitative health research findings . Qual Health Res, 22(10), 1404-1413.

Schoenberg, Nancy E., Miller, Edward A., and Pruchno, Rachel. (2011) The qualitative portfolio at The Gerontologist : strong and getting stronger. Gerontologist 51(3): 281-284.

Weaver-Hightower, M. B. (2019). How to write qualitative research . [e-book]

Sidhu, Kalwant, Roger Jones, and Fiona Stevenson (2017). Publishing qualitative research in medical journals. Br J Gen Pract ; 67 (658): 229-230. DOI: 10.3399/bjgp17X690821 PMID: 28450340

• This article is based on a workshop on publishing qualitative studies held at the Society for Academic Primary Care Annual Conference, Dublin, July 2016.

Smith, Mary Lee.(1987) Publishing Qualitative Research. American Educational Research Journal 24(2): 173-183.

Tong, Allison, Sainsbury, Peter, Craig, Jonathan ; Consolidated criteria for reporting qualitative research (COREQ): a 32-item checklist for interviews and focus groups , International Journal for Quality in Health Care , Volume 19, Issue 6, 1 December 2007, Pages 349–357, https://doi.org/10.1093/intqhc/mzm042 .

Tracy, Sarah. (2010) Qualitative Quality: Eight 'Big-Tent' Criteria for Excellent Qualitative Research. Qualitative Inquiry 16(10):837-51.

Because reviewers are not always familiar with qualitative methods, they may ask for explanation or justification of your methods when you submit an article. Because different disciplines,different qualitative methods, and different contexts may dictate different approaches to this issue, you may want to consult articles in your field and in target journals for publication.  Additionally, here are some articles that may be helpful in thinking about this issue. 

Bonde, Donna. (2013). Qualitative Interviews: When Enough is Enough . Research by Design.

Guest, Greg, Arwen Bunce, and Laura Johnson. (2006) How Many Interviews are Enough?: An Experiment with Data Saturation and Variability. Field Methods 18(1): 59-82.

Hennink, Monique and Bonnie N. Kaiser. (2022) Sample Sizes for Saturation in Qualitative Research: A Systematic Review of Empirical Tests . Social Science & Medicine 292:114523. doi: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2021.114523. Epub 2021 Nov 2. PMID: 34785096.

Morse, Janice M. (2015) "Data Were Saturated..." Qualitative Health Research 25(5): 587-88 . doi:10.1177/1049732315576699.

Nelson, J. (2016) "Using Conceptual Depth Criteria: Addressing the Challenge of Reaching Saturation in Qualitative Research." Qualitative Research, December. doi:10.1177/1468794116679873.

Patton, Michael Quinn. (2015) "Chapter 5: Designing Qualitative Studies, Module 30 Purposeful Sampling and Case Selection. In Qualitative Research & Evaluation Methods: Integrating Theory and Practice, Fourth edition, pp. 264-72. Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE Publications, Inc. ISBN: 978-1-4129-7212-3

Small, Mario Luis. (2009) 'How Many Cases Do I Need?': On Science and the Logic of Case-Based Selection in Field-Based Research. Ethnography 10(1): 538.

Search the UNC-CH catalog for books about qualitative writing . Selected general books from the catalog are listed below. If you are a researcher at another institution, ask your librarian for assistance locating similar books in your institution's catalog or ordering them via InterLibrary Loan.  

Oft quoted and food for thought

• Morse, J. M. (1997). " Perfectly healthy, but dead": the myth of inter-rater reliability. DOI:10.1177/104973239700700401 Editorial
• Silberzahn, R., Uhlmann, E. L., Martin, D. P., Anselmi, P., Aust, F., Awtrey, E., ... & Carlsson, R. (2018). Many analysts, one data set: Making transparent how variations in analytic choices affect results. Advances in Methods and Practices in Psychologi
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• Last Updated: Jul 28, 2024 4:11 PM
• URL: https://guides.lib.unc.edu/qual

Qualitative Research Essay Examples

A qualitative research essay describes non-numerical findings of an idea, opinion, or process. These data are usually obtained through in-depth interviews, observation, or focus group discussions. Besides, you should indicate the selected research method. It is a short paper format, so don’t be tempted to go into unnecessary details.

For example, if your topic is Apple performance management, you should focus on the long-term efficiency of the company rather than its annual indexes. Leave the figures for a quantitative research project.

Check our qualitative research essay examples to get an idea of what the task requires from you. Here the topics range from psychology and linguistics to sociology and economics.

163 Best Qualitative Research Essay Examples

Evolution of amazon business model.

• Subjects: Business Company Analysis
• Words: 2080

Physical Education Curriculum

• Subjects: Curriculum Development Education
• Words: 5011

Cause and Effect of Cell Phone Usage Among High School Students from U.S. and Middle East

• Subjects: Education Writing & Assignments
• Words: 1218

Impact of Employee Motivation in Organizational Performance

• Subjects: Business Management
• Words: 1490

Epidemiological Studies of Tuberculosis

• Subjects: Epidemiology Health & Medicine
• Words: 1357

Jewel Production and Its Purpose

• Words: 2435

Training programs for semiliterate and illiterate populations in Swaziland

• Subjects: Health & Medicine Healthcare Institution
• Words: 4727

Air Care Gap Analysis

• Subjects: Consumer Science Economics
• Words: 1691

The Removal of the Compulsory Retirement Age to Employ People Between the Ages of 65 and 80

• Subjects: Labor Law Law
• Words: 1257

Relationship Between Sleep and Depression in Adolescence

• Subjects: Psychological Issues Psychology
• Words: 2186

Improving Customer Service in a Nigerian Musical Instrument Company

• Subjects: Business E-Commerce
• Words: 6393

Child Behavior Today and Ten Years Ago

• Subjects: Sociological Theories Sociology
• Words: 1391

Research Methods in Linguistics

• Subjects: Language Use Linguistics

Washback Effect of School-Based Assessment on Teaching and Learning in Hong Kong

• Subjects: Education Education Theories
• Words: 2258

The Real World of Management

• Words: 3925

Effects of Transnational Organized Crime on Foreign Politics

• Subjects: Literature World Literature
• Words: 1934

The Concept of Product Development

• Words: 1428

Risk Analysis Process

• Words: 2108

Qualitative Research Method Analysis

• Subjects: Math Sciences
• Words: 1766

Mobile Marketing: The Hotelier’s Point of View

• Subjects: Business Marketing
• Words: 6940

Enterprise Resource Planning System’s Role in an Organization

• Subjects: Business Logistics
• Words: 3598

Virgin Australia Airline Quality Management System

• Subjects: Business Strategy
• Words: 4273

Critical Success Factors for the Implementation of System in the State of Qatar

• Words: 2159

Multicultural Training of Counselors Increases Competency

• Words: 3396

Relationship between Mood and Opinion

• Words: 1439

Development of Training and Mentoring Program

• Words: 1068

Gender and Education: Australian Single-Sex Schools

• Subjects: Education Education Perception
• Words: 3022

Managing Challenges in Schools

• Words: 1658

Law Enforcement Race and Domestic Calls

• Subjects: Law Enforcement Politics & Government
• Words: 4150

Phenomenology and Hermeneutics Research Methodologies

• Words: 2980

Operational Management Effectiveness

• Words: 3220

Free News and Readers Preferences Correlation

• Subjects: Entertainment & Media World News
• Words: 4752

The High Infant and Perinatal Mortality Rates in Chicago

• Subjects: Health & Medicine Healthcare Research

Spirituality in the Workplace

• Subjects: Business Business Ethics
• Words: 2495

L1 and L2 Glosses in Vocabulary Retention and Memorisation

• Subjects: Linguistics Teaching

Social Media and Older Australians

• Subjects: Entertainment & Media Social Media Advertising
• Words: 1397

Conflict in Syria: Opportunity for Future Democratisation?

• Subjects: Political Culture Politics & Government
• Words: 4486

Green Energy Brand Strategy

• Words: 4223

Homeland Security Department

• Subjects: Homeland Security Law

Cultural and Diversity Management Interview

• Subjects: Business Corporate Culture
• Words: 1384

Conflicts in Syria Present No Opportunity for Future Democratization

Mobile systems uses and impact on business.

• Words: 4162

Stop-and-Frisk Policy in New York

• Words: 2246

Recovering Energy from Waste

• Subjects: Environment Recycling
• Words: 1711

Cross Cultural Management and International Business

• Words: 2773

Peer Assessment as a Teaching Strategy

• Subjects: Education Pedagogical Approaches
• Words: 5585

How We Can Attract Higher Quality Volunteers

• Subjects: Sociological Issues Sociology
• Words: 1156

The Importance of Education During Early Childhood

• Subjects: Education Learning Challenges
• Words: 1806

Trends in Branding: Context and Application

• Words: 3118

Grounded Theory

• Subjects: Philosophy Philosophy of Science

Spatial Data Division of Abu Dhabi Municipality

• Subjects: Data Tech & Engineering
• Words: 3603

Branding Concept Development

• Subjects: Brand Management Business
• Words: 3042

Anti-Inflammatory Diet and IBD Management in Adults

• Subjects: Gastroenterology Health & Medicine
• Words: 3404

Reliability of Incremental Shuttle Walk Test

• Subjects: Health & Medicine Rehabilitation
• Words: 2291

Nypro Inc’s Innovation Model

• Words: 1296

Consolidated Model for Teaching Adults

• Subjects: Adult Education Education
• Words: 2587

How Can an Organization Implement an Enterprise Resource Planning System?

• Words: 8238

Leadership at KTG: Challenges and an Action Plan

• Words: 3312

Special Interest Disability and Personal Interview

• Words: 2317

Qatar’s Economic Diversification

• Subjects: Economics Political Economy Processes
• Words: 3569

The Impact of Social Media on Political Leaders

• Subjects: Political Communication Politics & Government
• Words: 3351

Secure Online Shopping System Model on Customer Behavior

• Words: 4384

Criteria Used in Assessing the Relative Success of a Family Business

• Subjects: Economics Microeconomics
• Words: 2564

Green Computing in Botswana

• Subjects: Other Technology Tech & Engineering

Security Laws in Stock Markets

• Subjects: Business & Corporate Law Law

Public’s Opinion on Alternative Sentencing

• Subjects: Criminal Law Law
• Words: 5092

Strategic HRM in a Multinational Firm

• Words: 3734

The International Monetary Fund and the World Bank

• Subjects: Economics Finance
• Words: 4996

The Strategic Management of IKEA for Furniture Company in UAE or Gulf Corporate Countries

• Subjects: Business
• Words: 3444

Response to Intervention and Assistive Technology

• Subjects: Education Special Education
• Words: 1199

History of Vietnamese Diaspora

• Words: 1393

Carbon Management Accounting

• Subjects: Environment Planet Protection
• Words: 2218

Alcohol Abuse by Quentin McCarthy

• Subjects: Psychology Psychology of Abuse
• Words: 2759

Fifth Grade Students’ Learning Level

• Words: 1400

Planning Psycho-educational Preliminary Tasks

• Subjects: Psychological Principles Psychology
• Words: 1484

LVMH in China’s Domestic Market

• Subjects: Business Case Study
• Words: 4859

Data Warehouse and Data Mining in Business

• Words: 4190

Sustaining a Culture in Multinational Corporations

• Words: 2264

Microfinance in developing economies

• Words: 2209

Air Pollution: Public Health Impact

• Subjects: Climate Change Environment
• Words: 1200

Knowledge Strategy Report from the Ting Shao Kuang Art Gallery: In Search for a Proper Management Strategy

• Words: 1639

Isolated Families – Australia

Corporate social responsibilities in russia.

• Words: 1113

Information Freedom in Government

• Subjects: Government Politics & Government
• Words: 2870

Recruiting in Al-Andalus School

• Words: 3549

Migration and National Security

• Subjects: Immigration Sociology
• Words: 2262

Simple Stimulus Learning: Habituation and Perceptuality

• Subjects: Education Learning Specifics
• Words: 1195

Human Resource Management and Organizational Culture

• Words: 3566

Strategic Management in Current and Future Businesses

• Words: 2203

Cross-Cultural Management in Multinational Corporations

• Subjects: Business Employees Management
• Words: 2475

Current Issues in International Management

• Subjects: Business Impact of Business Issues
• Words: 7003

Cultural, Gender and Racial Differences in Sports

• Subjects: Sports Sports Science
• Words: 3702

Performance Evaluation Procedures and Tools

• Subjects: Development Psychology
• Words: 1955

The Novelty of Teams

• Words: 1958

Youth Arts and the Regulation of Subjectivity

• Words: 1975

Evidenced-Based Practice: Autism Management in Children

• Words: 1388

Education and Career Opportunities System Evaluation

• Words: 1506

Role of Planning Professionals

• Subjects: Geography Sciences
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Qualitative Research Writing

• First Online: 11 November 2020

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• Seyyed-Abdolhamid Mirhosseini 2  

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This chapter focuses on the presentation of qualitative studies in writing. Although not part of the technicalities of the process of inquiry itself, the quality of reporting the process and outcomes of research plays a crucial role in completing the research endeavor. Apart from sharing the research findings, research writing can serve two other purposes. The very attempt at preparing an account of a study to be read by outsiders can help researchers distance themselves from the details of the project and notice the possible shortcomings. Moreover, a transparent presentation of the details of the research process and illustrating the findings in qualitative writing can facilitate corroboration and contribute to the overall process of taking care of the quality of qualitative research. The chapter also briefly addresses publishing qualitative language education research and introduces some related journals.

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Mirhosseini, SA. (2020). Qualitative Research Writing. In: Doing Qualitative Research in Language Education. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-56492-6_10

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A Qualitative Research Essay

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Qualitative Research

What is qualitative research.

Qualitative research is a methodology focused on collecting and analyzing descriptive, non-numerical data to understand complex human behavior, experiences, and social phenomena. This approach utilizes techniques such as interviews, focus groups, and observations to explore the underlying reasons, motivations, and meanings behind actions and decisions. Unlike quantitative research, which focuses on measuring and quantifying data, qualitative research delves into the 'why' and 'how' of human behavior, providing rich, contextual insights that reveal deeper patterns and relationships.

The Basic Idea

Theory, meet practice.

TDL is an applied research consultancy. In our work, we leverage the insights of diverse fields—from psychology and economics to machine learning and behavioral data science—to sculpt targeted solutions to nuanced problems.

Ever heard of the saying “quality over quantity”? Well, some researchers feel the same way!

Imagine you are conducting a study looking at consumer behavior for buying potato chips. You’re interested in seeing which factors influence a customer’s choice between purchasing Doritos and Pringles. While you could conduct quantitative research and measure the number of bags purchased, this data alone wouldn’t explain why consumers choose one chip brand over the other; it would just tell you what they are purchasing. To gather more meaningful data, you may conduct interviews or surveys, asking people about their chip preferences and what draws them to one brand over another. Is it the taste of the chips? The font or color of the bag? This qualitative approach dives deeper to uncover why one potato chip is more popular than the other and can help companies make the adjustments that count.

Qualitative research, as seen in the example above, can provide greater insight into behavior, going beyond numbers to understand people’s experiences, attitudes, and perceptions. It helps us to grasp the meaning behind decisions, rather than just describing them. As human behavior is often difficult to qualify, qualitative research is a useful tool for solving complex problems or as a starting point to generate new ideas for research. Qualitative methods are used across all types of research—from consumer behavior to education, healthcare, behavioral science, and everywhere in between!

At its core, qualitative research is exploratory—rather than coming up with a hypothesis and gathering numerical data to support it, qualitative research begins with open-ended questions. Instead of asking “Which chip brand do consumers buy more frequently?”, qualitative research asks “Why do consumers choose one chip brand over another?”. Common methods to obtain qualitative data include focus groups, unstructured interviews, and surveys. From the data gathered, researchers then can make hypotheses and move on to investigating them. 

It’s important to note that qualitative and quantitative research are not two opposing methods, but rather two halves of a whole. Most of the best studies leverage both kinds of research by collecting objective, quantitative data, and using qualitative research to gain greater insight into what the numbers reveal.

You may have heard the world is made up of atoms and molecules, but it’s really made up of stories. When you sit with an individual that’s been here, you can give quantitative data a qualitative overlay. – William Turner, 16th century British scientist 1

Quantitative Research: A research method that involves collecting and analyzing numerical data to test hypotheses, identify patterns, and predict outcomes.

Exploratory Research: An initial study used to investigate a problem that is not clearly defined, helping to clarify concepts and improve research design.

Positivism: A scientific approach that emphasizes empirical evidence and objectivity, often involving the testing of hypotheses based on observable data. 2 

Phenomenology: A research approach that emphasizes the first-person point of view, placing importance on how people perceive, experience, and interpret the world around them. 3

Social Interaction Theory: A theoretical perspective that people make sense of their social worlds by the exchange of meaning through language and symbols. 4

Critical Theory: A worldview that there is no unitary or objective “truth” about people that can be discovered, as human experience is shaped by social, cultural, and historical contexts that influences reality and society. 5

Empirical research: A method of gaining knowledge through direct observation and experimentation, relying on real-world data to test theories. 

Paradigm shift: A fundamental change in the basic assumptions and methodologies of a scientific discipline, leading to the adoption of a new framework. 2

Interpretive/descriptive approach: A methodology that focuses on understanding the meanings people assign to their experiences, often using qualitative methods.

Unstructured interviews: A free-flowing conversation between researcher and participant without predetermined questions that must be asked to all participants. Instead, the researcher poses questions depending on the flow of the interview. 6

Focus Group: Group interviews where a researcher asks questions to guide a conversation between participants who are encouraged to share their ideas and information, leading to detailed insights and diverse perspectives on a specific topic.

Grounded theory : A qualitative methodology that generates a theory directly from data collected through iterative analysis.

When social sciences started to emerge in the 17th and 18th centuries, researchers wanted to apply the same quantitative approach that was used in the natural sciences. At this time, there was a predominant belief that human behavior could be numerically analyzed to find objective patterns and would be generalizable to similar people and situations. Using scientific means to understand society is known as a positivist approach. However, in the early 20th century, both natural and social scientists started to criticize this traditional view of research as being too reductive. 2  

In his book, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, American philosopher Thomas Kuhn identified that a major paradigm shift was starting to occur. Earlier methods of science were being questioned and replaced with new ways of approaching research which suggested that true objectivity was not possible when studying human behavior. Rather, the importance of context meant research on one group could not be generalized to all groups. 2 Numbers alone were deemed insufficient for understanding the environment surrounding human behavior which was now seen as a crucial piece of the puzzle. Along with this paradigm shift, Western scholars began to take an interest in ethnography , wanting to understand the customs, practices, and behaviors of other cultures. 

Qualitative research became more prominent throughout the 20th century, expanding beyond anthropology and ethnography to being applied across all forms of research; in science, psychology, marketing—the list goes on. Paul Felix Lazarsfield, Austrian-American sociologist and mathematician often known as the father of qualitative research, popularized new methods such as unstructured interviews and group discussions. 7 During the 1940s, Lazarfield brought attention to the fact that humans are not always rational decision-makers, making them difficult to understand through numerical data alone.

The 1920s saw the invention of symbolic interaction theory, developed by George Herbert Mead. Symbolic interaction theory posits society as the product of shared symbols such as language. People attach meanings to these symbols which impacts the way they understand and communicate with the world around them, helping to create and maintain a society. 4 Critical theory was also developed in the 1920s at the University of Frankfurt Institute for Social Research. Following the challenge of positivism, critical theory is a worldview that there is no unitary or objective “truth” about people that can be discovered, as human experience is shaped by social, cultural, and historical contexts. By shedding light on the human experience, it hopes to highlight the role of power, ideology, and social structures in shaping humans, and using this knowledge to create change. 5

Other formalized theories were proposed during the 20th century, such as grounded theory , where researchers started gathering data to form a hypothesis, rather than the other way around. This represented a stark contrast to positivist approaches that had dominated the 17th and 18th centuries.

The 1950s marked a shift toward a more interpretive and descriptive approach which factored in how people make sense of their subjective reality and attach meaning to it. 2 Researchers began to recognize that the why of human behavior was just as important as the what . Max Weber, a German sociologist, laid the foundation of the interpretive approach through the concept of Verstehen (which in English translates to understanding), emphasizing the importance of interpreting the significance people attach to their behavior. 8 With the shift to an interpretive and descriptive approach came the rise of phenomenology, which emphasizes first-person experiences by studying how individuals perceive, experience, and interpret the world around them. 

Today, in the age of big data, qualitative research has boomed, as advancements in digital tools allow researchers to gather vast amounts of data (both qualitative and quantitative), helping us better understand complex social phenomena. Social media patterns can be analyzed to understand public sentiment, consumer behavior, and cultural trends to grasp how people attach subjective meaning to their reality. There is even an emerging field of digital ethnography which is entirely focused on how humans interact and communicate in virtual environments!

Thomas Kuhn

American philosopher who suggested that science does not evolve through merely an addition of knowledge by compiling new learnings onto existing theories, but instead undergoes paradigm shifts where new theories and methodologies replace old ones. In this way, Kuhn suggested that science is a reflection of a community at a particular point in time. 9

Paul Felix Lazarsfeld

Often referred to as the father of qualitative research, Austrian-American sociologist and mathematician Paul Lazarsfield helped to develop modern empirical methods of conducting research in the social sciences such as surveys, opinion polling, and panel studies. Lazarsfeld was best known for combining qualitative and quantitative research to explore America's voting habits and behaviors related to mass communication, such as newspapers, magazines, and radios. 10  

German sociologist and political economist known for his sociological approach of “Verstehen” which emphasized the need to understand individuals or groups by exploring the meanings that people attach to their decisions. While previously, qualitative researchers in ethnography acted like an outside observer to explain behavior from their point of view, Weber believed that an empathetic understanding of behavior, that explored both intent and context, was crucial to truly understanding behavior. 11  

George Herbert Mead

Widely recognized as the father of symbolic interaction theory, Mead was an American philosopher and sociologist who took an interest in how spoken language and symbols contribute to one’s idea of self, and to society at large. 4

Consequences

Humans are incredibly complex beings, whose behaviors cannot always be reduced to mere numbers and statistics. Qualitative research acknowledges this inherent complexity and can be used to better capture the diversity of human and social realities. 

Qualitative research is also more flexible—it allows researchers to pivot as they uncover new insights. Instead of approaching the study with predetermined hypotheses, oftentimes, researchers let the data speak for itself and are not limited by a set of predefined questions. It can highlight new areas that a researcher hadn’t even thought of exploring. 

By providing a deeper explanation of not only what we do, but why we do it, qualitative research can be used to inform policy-making, educational practices, healthcare approaches, and marketing tactics. For instance, while quantitative research tells us how many people are smokers, qualitative research explores what, exactly, is driving them to smoke in the first place. If the research reveals that it is because they are unaware of the gravity of the consequences, efforts can be made to emphasize the risks, such as by placing warnings on cigarette cartons. 

Finally, qualitative research helps to amplify the voices of marginalized or underrepresented groups. Researchers who embrace a true “Verstehen” mentality resist applying their own worldview to the subjects they study, but instead seek to understand the meaning people attach to their own behaviors. In bringing forward other worldviews, qualitative research can help to shift perceptions and increase awareness of social issues. For example, while quantitative research may show that mental health conditions are more prevalent for a certain group, along with the access they have to mental health resources, qualitative research is able to explain the lived experiences of these individuals and uncover what barriers they are facing to getting help. This qualitative approach can support governments and health organizations to better design mental health services tailored to the communities they exist in.

Controversies

Qualitative research aims to understand an individual’s lived experience, which although provides deeper insights, can make it hard to generalize to a larger population. While someone in a focus group could say they pick Doritos over Pringles because they prefer the packaging, it’s difficult for a researcher to know if this is universally applicable, or just one person’s preference. 12 This challenge makes it difficult to replicate qualitative research because it involves context-specific findings and subjective interpretation. 

Moreover, there can be bias in sample selection when conducting qualitative research. Individuals who put themselves forward to be part of a focus group or interview may hold strong opinions they want to share, making the insights gathered from their answers not necessarily reflective of the general population.13 People may also give answers that they think researchers are looking for leading to skewed results, which is a common example of the observer expectancy effect . 

However, the bias in this interaction can go both ways. While researchers are encouraged to embrace “Verstehen,” there is a possibility that they project their own views onto their participants. For example, if an American researcher is studying eating habits in China and observes someone burping, they may attribute this behavior to rudeness—when in fact, burping can be a sign that you have enjoyed your meal and it is a compliment to the chef. One way to mitigate this risk is through thick description , noting a great amount of contextual detail in their observations. Another way to minimize the researcher’s bias on their observations is through member checking , returning results to participants to check if they feel they accurately capture their experience.

Another drawback of qualitative research is that it is time-consuming. Focus groups and unstructured interviews take longer and are more difficult to logistically arrange, and the data gathered is harder to analyze as it goes beyond numerical data. While advances in technology alleviate some of these labor-intensive processes, they still require more resources. 

Many of these drawbacks can be mitigated through a mixed-method approach, combining both qualitative and quantitative research. Qualitative research can be a good starting point, giving depth and contextual understanding to a behavior, before turning to quantitative data to see if the results are generalizable. Or, the opposite direction can be used—quantitative research can show us the “what,” identifying patterns and correlations, and researchers can then better understand the “why” behind behavior by leveraging qualitative methods. Triangulation —using multiple datasets, methods, or theories—is another way to help researchers avoid bias. 

Linking Adult Behaviors to Childhood Experiences

In the mid-1980s, an obesity program at the KP San Diego Department of Preventive Medicine had a high dropout rate. What was interesting is that a majority of the dropouts were successfully losing weight, posing the question of why they were leaving the program in the first place. In this instance, greater investigation was required to understand the why behind their behaviors.

Researchers conducted in-depth interviews with almost 200 dropouts, finding that many of them had experienced childhood abuse that had led to obesity. In this unfortunate scenario, obesity was a consequence of another problem, rather than the root problem itself. This led Dr. Vincent J. Felitti, who was working for the department, to launch the Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) Study, aimed at exploring how childhood experiences impact adult health status. 

Felitti and the Department of Preventive Medicine studied over 17,000 adults with health plans that revealed a strong relationship between emotional experiences as children and negative health behaviors as adults, such as obesity, smoking, and intravenous drug use. This study demonstrates the importance of qualitative research to uncover correlations that would not be discovered by merely looking at numerical data. 14  

Understanding Voter Turnout

Voting is usually considered an important part of political participation in a democracy. However, voter turnout is an issue in many countries, including the US. While quantitative research can tell us how many people vote, it does not provide insights into why people choose to vote or not.

With this in mind, Dawn Merdelin Johnson, a PhD student in philosophy at Walden University, explored how public corruption has impacted voter turnout in Cook County, Illinois. Johnson conducted semi-structured telephone interviews to understand factors that contribute to low voter turnout and the impact of public corruption on voting behaviors. Johnson found that public corruption leads to voters believing public officials prioritize their own well-being over the good of the people, leading to distrust in candidates and the overall political system, and thus making people less likely to vote. Other themes revealed that to increase voter turnout, voting should be more convenient and supply more information about the candidates to help people make more informed decisions.

From these findings, Johnson suggested that the County could experience greater voter turnout through the development of an anti-corruption agency, improved voter registration and maintenance, and enhanced voting accessibility. These initiatives would boost voting engagement and positively impact democratic participation. 15

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Emilie Rose Jones

Emilie currently works in Marketing & Communications for a non-profit organization based in Toronto, Ontario. She completed her Masters of English Literature at UBC in 2021, where she focused on Indigenous and Canadian Literature. Emilie has a passion for writing and behavioural psychology and is always looking for opportunities to make knowledge more accessible. 

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• Published: 30 August 2024

A qualitative investigation of financial decision-making and enabling factors among ethnic minority young adults in Hong Kong

• Esther Yin-Nei Cho 1  

Humanities and Social Sciences Communications volume  11 , Article number:  1113 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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Current understanding of financial decision-making among racial/ethnic minority young adults is limited: day-to-day financial decisions of racial/ethnic minorities are underexamined, younger racial/ethnic minorities receive limited attention, studies on racial/ethnic minorities are mainly conducted in Western societies, and research on financial literacy and decision-making is predominantly quantitative in nature. Against this backdrop, this study utilized a qualitative approach to examine a range of financial decision-making among ethnic minority young adults in Hong Kong, including personal budgeting, spending, financial planning, the use of financial products, debt management, and the detection of financial fraud. Individual interviews were conducted with 53 Pakistani, Indian, Nepalese, and Filipino participants aged 18 to 29 who employed various budgeting strategies and faced challenges. Their spending was modest, and they espoused various spending philosophies. Many saved approximately one-third of their income using saving tactics and setting financial goals, and investing in both Hong Kong and their home countries. Informal borrowing was common, though some sought alternative loans. One-third used credit cards, with accompanying occasional risks. Despite employing protective tactics, they still fell victim to scams. Factors facilitating their financial decision-making include family social capital, intrapersonal characteristics, social dynamics factors, command of knowledge, and facilitative contextual circumstances. This study addresses knowledge gaps by providing an in-depth understanding of financial decision-making among ethnic minority young adults in a non-Western context. It has significant implications for timely and tailored financial literacy education for minority societal members.

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Introduction.

Extensive attention has been given to studying and promoting financial literacy, as shown by the burgeoning literature on the subject (e.g., Angrisani et al., 2021 ; Atkinson and Messy, 2012 ; Kempson, 2009 ; Lusardi and Mitchell, 2007 ), financial literacy incorporated as a national priority (OECD, 2015a ), and the proliferation of financial education programs worldwide (Kaiser and Menkhoff, 2020 ). The primary reason for this attention and effort lies in the growing awareness of the generally low levels of financial literacy across the world (e.g., Lusardi, 2019 ; Lusardi and Mitchell, 2011a ) and its impact on financial well-being, which, in turn, influences overall individual and societal well-being (Grohmann et al., 2018 ).

There is no universal definition of financial literacy, but the definitions used in the literature are essentially similar (e.g., Atkinson and Messy, 2012 ; Hung et al., 2009 ; OECD, 2015b ). For instance, financial literacy is defined as the “knowledge of basic economic and financial concepts, as well as the ability to use that knowledge and other financial skills to manage financial resources effectively for a lifetime of financial well-being” (Hung et al., 2009 , p.12) or “a combination of awareness, knowledge, skill, attitude, and behavior necessary to make sound financial decisions and ultimately achieve individual financial well-being” (Atkinson and Messy, 2012 , p.14). The terms “financial literacy” and “financial capability” are often used interchangeably (e.g., Muir et al., 2017 ; Xiao et al., 2014 ), referring to the ability to apply appropriate financial knowledge and engage in financial behaviors to achieve financial well-being (Xiao et al., 2014 ), though it may also include access to financial resources (Johnson and Sherraden, 2007 ).

These slightly different definitions converge around three interrelated ideas. First, financial literacy consists of basic elements, such as knowledge, attitudes, skills, and behavior, necessary for making financial decisions. Second, it involves the ability to apply these elements for sound financial decision-making. Third, financial literacy ultimately affects financial well-being through improved financial decision-making. Therefore, the extent of individuals’ financial literacy is not merely determined by their knowledge but also by how well they apply knowledge in their decision-making, which requires practice and judgement (Worthington, 2006 ). To fully understand people’s financial literacy, it is also necessary to examine their financial decisions in terms of both their practice and perceptions.

Disparities in financial literacy among different population groups have been documented based on characteristics such as age, gender, education, race/ethnicity, income level, and marital status (e.g., Brown and Graf, 2013 ; Lusardi et al., 2010 ; Lusardi and Mitchell, 2011a , 2011b ). Racial/ethnic minorities comprise one of the most vulnerable groups (Al-Bahrani et al., 2019 ; Angrisani et al., 2021 ; Brown and Graf, 2013 ; Lusardi and Mitchell, 2011b ). For example, Black and Hispanic individuals in the USA tend to score lower on financial literacy questions than Whites (Lusardi and Mitchell, 2011b ). While it is recognized that racial/ethnic minorities have lower levels of financial knowledge, a more comprehensive understanding of their financial literacy is still needed.

First, racial/ethnic minorities’ financial decision-making has not been sufficiently examined. Existing studies focus on banking accounts (Barcellos and Zamarro, 2021 ; Kim et al., 2016 ; Lusardi, 2005 ), credit use and debts (Ekanem, 2013 ; Gaur et al., 2020 ; Goodstein et al., 2021 ; Yao et al., 2011 ), asset holding (Lusardi, 2005 ), and retirement planning (Kim et al., 2021 ). Other important day-to-day financial decisions are less understood, such as budgeting, savings, using other financial products, and detecting financial fraud.

Second, younger members of racial/ethnic minorities, who face double challenges, have received limited attention. As racial/ethnic minorities, they already have low levels of financial literacy. As younger adults, they are more financially vulnerable than their older counterparts. Not only do they have lower levels of financial knowledge, such as inflation, compound interest, and risk diversification (Lusardi et al., 2010 ; Lusardi and Mitchell, 2011a ), but they also face more financial challenges due to longer life spans, more financial decisions to make, and greater financial risks in an increasingly complex global financial environment.

Third, most studies on racial/ethnic minorities have been conducted in Western societies, particularly the USA, with more limited research conducted in other contexts, such as Asian societies.

Fourth, research on financial literacy is predominantly quantitative (Goyal and Kumar, 2021 ; Kelley et al., 2021 ). Qualitative studies are few, particularly regarding racial/ethnic minorities (Ekanem, 2013 ; Gaur et al., 2020 ). While quantitative studies provide a broad perspective on the subject matter, qualitative studies offer an in-depth understanding of how individuals perceive and make meaning of their financial decisions. This information is valuable for informing financial literacy education and thus improving financial decision-making.

This study examined a range of financial decisions made by ethnic minority young adults in Hong Kong using qualitative inquiry to address these limitations. By adopting a qualitative approach, the study focuses on generating themes that may not be captured in quantitative studies relying on statistical figures. It extends the literature by providing a deeper understanding of the financial decisions made by younger ethnic minority individuals within a non-Western context. The findings also reveal factors facilitating sound financial decision-making among ethnic minority younger people, particularly in Hong Kong. These findings have important implications for tailoring “just-in-time” financial literacy education to meet their specific needs, as opposed to a “one-size-fits-all” approach (Goyal and Kumar, 2021 ).

In the following, after briefly highlighting the relevant literature on financial literacy and financial decisions, the findings on ethnic minority young adults regarding different areas of financial decision-making will be presented. Factors facilitating their financial decision-making will be identified, and implications for financial literacy education and further research discussed.

A brief overview of financial literacy and financial decisions

Patterns of financial literacy.

Financial literacy levels are associated with various socioeconomic factors, including age, gender, education, parental education, employment status, marital status, area of residence, and race and ethnicity. Financial literacy exhibits a bell curve distribution with age. It is lower among young and old individuals than those in the middle of the life cycle (Atkinson and Messy, 2012 ; Brown and Graf, 2013 ). For instance, less than one-third of young adults possess basic concepts about inflation, risk diversification, and compound interest (Lusardi et al., 2010 ; Lusardi and Mitchell, 2011a ). Regarding gender, women tend to have lower levels of financial literacy than men. They have less financial knowledge about debt, inflation, risk diversification, and compound interest (Brown and Graf, 2013 ; Lusardi and Mitchell, 2011a ; Lusardi and Tufano, 2015 ) and are less likely to plan for retirement (Herd et al., 2012 ). Educational attainment is positively related to financial literacy (Herd et al., 2012 ; Klapper et al., 2012 ; Lusardi and Mitchell, 2007 , 2011a ). Less well-educated people are less likely to answer financial literacy questions correctly and tend to indicate not knowing the answer (Lusardi and Mitchell, 2011a ). Individuals without a college degree are less likely to understand concepts about inflation, risk diversification, and simple interest calculations (Herd et al., 2012 ). More educated people tend to have positive attitudes towards retirement planning (van Rooij et al., 2011a ) and possess a bank account (Klapper et al., 2012 ). Parental education, particularly mothers’ education, and parents’ possession of stock or retirement accounts are positively related to financial literacy (Lusardi et al., 2010 ). Fathers’ education is positively associated with their daughters’ financial literacy (Mahdavi and Horton, 2014 ). In terms of employment status, employed individuals have substantially higher levels of financial literacy than those who are unemployed or retired (Brown and Graf, 2013 ; Bucher-Koenen and Lusardi, 2011 ). Marital status is also related to financial literacy levels, with married people tending to have higher levels than single individuals (Brown and Graf, 2013 ). In terms of area of residence, those who live in a city score better in financial knowledge than their rural counterparts (Klapper and Panos, 2011 ). As for race and ethnicity, individuals belonging to the racial majority or being native-born have higher financial literacy levels (Brown and Graf, 2013 ; Lusardi and Mitchell, 2007 , 2011b ). For example, African Americans and Hispanics in the USA have lower financial literacy than Whites (Al-Bahrani et al., 2019 ; Lusardi and Mitchell, 2007 , 2011b ). In Switzerland, foreign citizens, especially immigrants with a non-German native language, exhibit lower financial literacy than native-born individuals (Brown and Graf, 2013 ). Students from an immigrant background also have lower financial literacy than other students (OECD, 2014 ).

The association between financial literacy and financial decision-making

Financial literacy is crucial for making sound financial decisions and avoiding costly mistakes. Empirical findings show that financial literacy is associated with various outcomes of financial decision-making, including day-to-day financial management, financial planning, using financial products, debt management, and detecting financial scams.

First, financial literacy can lead to better day-to-day financial management, such as responsible family budgeting, timely bill payments, and avoiding impulsive purchases (Akben-Selcuk, 2015 ; Atkinson and Messy, 2012 ; Hilgert et al., 2003 ; Perry and Morris, 2005 ). For example, a study of college students shows that those with higher financial literacy are more likely to pay bills on time and have a budget in place (Akben-Selcuk, 2015 ). Second, financial literacy is associated with better financial planning. Financially literate individuals are more likely to engage in savvy and active saving behavior (Akben-Selcuk, 2015 ; de Bassa Scheresberg, 2013 ; Deuflhard et al., 2019 ; Klapper et al., 2012 ). They are more likely to plan for retirement and save for emergencies (de Bassa Scheresberg, 2013 ). Third, financial literacy is related to better debt management. Individuals with better debt literacy will avoid high-cost borrowing, high transaction costs, and higher fees (Lusardi and Tufano, 2015 ; de Bassa Scheresberg, 2013 ). They also adopt better credit card behavior, which minimizes fees and interest charges resulting from late payments, cash advances, and paying only the minimum amount due (Lusardi and Tufano, 2015 ; Mottola, 2013 ). Fourth, financial literacy influences the use of financial products. Individuals with higher levels of financial literacy are less likely to be unbanked and use alternative financial services, such as payday loans (Kim and Lee, 2018 ). It is also associated with greater participation in investment and savvy investment decisions. Financially literate people tend to evaluate financial products carefully (Atkinson and Messy, 2012 ) and be more involved in the stock market (Almenberg and Dreber, 2015 ; van Rooij et al., 2011b ). Finally, financial literacy can increase the ability to detect financial fraud. Findings show that a one standard deviation increase in financial knowledge increases the probability of fraud detection by three percentage points (Engels et al., 2020 ).

Financial decisions of racial/ethnic minorities

Research on financial decisions made by racial/ethnic minorities has mostly focused on using financial products, debt management and credit use, and retirement planning.

Regarding financial products, African Americans and Hispanics in the USA are less likely to have a bank account and hold asset investments, such as stocks, than Whites (Kim et al., 2016 ; Lusardi, 2005 ; Shanbhag, 2022 ). Another study examined community development credit unions providing affordable financial services, such as mortgages, to help African Americans save money and build assets (Nembhard, 2013 ). Newly arrived immigrants in Australia demonstrated low utilization of financial products and services, such as ATM cards, bank savings accounts, and credit cards (Zuhair et al., 2015 ).

As for debt, around 80% of Chinese American respondents in a study on debt ownership held some type of debt, such as credit cards, mortgages, and instalment loans (Yao et al., 2011 ). Age, the presence of children under 18, health, income, and amount of financial or non-financial assets are associated with the probability of borrowing. Other studies have explored the attitudes of Black and other minority ethnic entrepreneurs experiencing bankruptcy in England (Ekanem, 2013 ) or Pacific Island adults in New Zealand towards debt, money, or bankruptcy (Gaur et al., 2020 ). Significant racial/ethnic differences in credit use have also been reported. Approximately 75% of White, 80% of Asian, 50% of Hispanic, and 45% of Black households use bank credit, in terms of a credit card or a personal loan or line of credit from a bank. However, nonbank credit, such as payday loans, is more predominant among Black and Hispanic households (Goodstein et al., 2021 ).

Studies on retirement planning show that ethnic minorities have less savings for retirement than Whites (Gough and Adami, 2013 ) and are also less motivated to hold retirement savings even after controlling for different socio-economic characteristics (Kim et al., 2021 ).

Ethnic minorities in Hong Kong

Despite growing efforts to promote financial literacy among people in Hong Kong in recent years, such as establishing the Investor and Financial Education Council as a public organization to promote financial education in Hong Kong, ethnic minority younger adults are still largely overlooked. In terms of research, the financial literacy of ethnic minority young adults or even ethnic minority communities is underexplored. Existing survey findings only show disparities in financial literacy between younger and older adults in the general population, with the former performing poorly, particularly in timely bill payments, making ends meet without borrowing, and keeping up with their financial affairs (Investor Education Centre, 2018 ). Financial education programs targeting ethnic minorities are also limited. Only 0.6% of the 661 financial education initiatives conducted between 2011 and 2015 were intended for the ethnic minority population (Investor Education Centre, 2015 ).

Ethnic minorities in Hong Kong refer to the non-Chinese population, which makes up 8.4% of the total population (Census and Statistics Department, 2022 ). Most are Filipino and Indonesian, constituting 32.5% and 22.9%, respectively, and most (more than 90%) of these are foreign domestic helpers living in their employers’ homes. South Asians, including Pakistanis, Indians, and Nepalese, make up 16.5% of the ethnic minority population. The rest are mostly White people and other Asians, such as Korean and Japanese, who often enjoy a higher social and economic status in the city and are not the focus of this study. After excluding the Filipina and Indonesian domestic helpers, Pakistanis, Indians, Nepalese, and Filipinos represent the largest proportion of the ethnic minority population in Hong Kong and are the focus of this study. These individuals may have migrated to Hong Kong with their families or were born in Hong Kong. Some of them may have acquired a certain level of English and Cantonese, the local language, especially if they have received education in Hong Kong.

In Hong Kong, ethnic minority younger adults are likely to perform less well in financial literacy and financial decisions than the general population, which is largely made up of ethnic Chinese. This is because they generally fare poorly in terms of education and employment. For example, school attendance rates for ethnic minorities in the age groups 3–5, 12–17, and 18–24 years were 90.7%, 96.2%, and 29.2%, respectively, compared to 92.5%, 97.8%, and 51.8% for the whole population in 2016 (Census and Statistics Department, 2017 ). As regards occupation, 35% of Nepalese, 35% of Pakistani, and 25% of Indian individuals were engaged in elementary jobs, such as cleaners, laborers, and food preparation assistants, compared to 21% of the general population (Census and Statistics Department, 2017 ).

Drawing on the literature, this study examined the financial decision-making of ethnic minority young adults in Hong Kong and posed the following research questions:

What are the experiences of ethnic minority young adults, in terms of practice or strategies and perceptions, in different areas of financial decision-making, including day-to-day financial management (personal budgeting and spending), financial planning, using financial products, debt management, and detecting financial fraud?

What factors enable ethnic minority young adults to make sound financial decisions?

This study employed a qualitative approach, using individual in-depth interviews, to examine the financial decision-making of ethnic minority young adults in their daily lives. The rich data gathered from qualitative inquiry can provide a nuanced understanding of human behavior, which involves practice and judgement. Semi-structured interviews allow participants to express their thoughts in their own words, which is particularly beneficial for delving into a poorly understood topic.

Participants and data collection

In this study, Pakistani, Indian, Nepalese, and Filipino participants were recruited through NGOs that provided services for ethnic minority young adults and international offices of universities using purposive sampling. In addition to ethnicities, young adults who were 18 to 29 years old, permanent residents of Hong Kong, and students or employed were recruited. Table 1 summarizes the participants’ background characteristics. Fifty-three ethnic minority young adults aged between 18 and 29 years were recruited: 16 Pakistani, 13 Indian, 13 Nepalese, and 11 Filipino. Thirty-five were aged 18–23, and 18 were aged 24–29. There were 30 males and 23 females. Thirty-two were employed at the time of the interview, and 21 were students. The occupations of those in employment included elementary jobs (e.g., security guards), service workers (e.g., customer service), associate professionals (e.g., program workers in NGOs), and professionals (e.g., software developers). Many ethnic minority students had part-time jobs ( n  = 12), such as cashiers, tutors, football coaches, and delivery workers. Other students depended on their parents for financial support ( n  = 9). Most participants were pursuing or had attained at least a bachelor’s degree ( n  = 30). Sub-degree education being pursued or attained included associate degrees, higher diplomas, or foundation diplomas ( n  = 11). The education level of the remaining participants ranged from Secondary 3 to 6 ( n  = 12). Students’ monthly earnings ranged from US$90 to $2500; more than half received US$1250 or less ( n  = 18). Working participants’ monthly earnings ranged from US$625 to $3560, most receiving between US$1250 and $2500 ( n  = 16).

The Research Ethics Committee of the university to which the author was affiliated provided ethical approval before the study commenced. Before interviewing, participants’ informed consent was obtained after explaining the study’s objectives and principles of confidentiality and voluntary participation. Each interview took place in an NGO or university and generally lasted between 60 and 75 min.

Interview questions

The interview questions were developed to gather information on a range of financial decisions based on the literature on financial literacy and financial decisions, including day-to-day financial management (personal budgeting and spending), financial planning, using financial products, debt management, and detecting financial fraud. Participants were asked about their practices or strategies and perceptions of each area of financial decision-making. The interviews were conducted in English.

The audio recordings of individual interviews were transcribed verbatim. Following Braun and Clarke ( 2006 ), thematic analysis was employed to identify, analyze, and report major themes within the data. The researchers first familiarized themselves with the data through repeated readings. They then developed initial codes to capture the meaningful aspects of the data. These codes were further organized into potential themes, and the relevant data associated with each code were collated within the potential themes. The potential themes were refined through careful review to ensure the coherence of data within each of them and that they were distinct. Once the refinements were finalized, the themes were named to accurately reflect their essence.

The following findings present the practices, strategies and perceptions of various financial decisions. Table 2 summarizes the major themes., which also align with particular components of financial literacy, including financial knowledge, attitudes, and behavior (Atkinson and Messy, 2012 ).

Personal budgeting

Spending- or saving-centric approach in practice.

Most participants had developed habits of monthly budgeting, using saving- or spending-centric approaches. The former involves setting a savings amount and then spending the remainder, whereas the latter involves setting a spending limit and then saving the remainder. For example, one participant was more conscious of his savings:

I set in mind that every month I have a certain percentage to be saved and not to be touched. The rest is like spendable expenses, so I don’t have to go crazy saving mode. (18Indian, M/26 y, W, Degree) Footnote 1

Digital tools, parental monitoring, and mental bucketing as strategies

Participants employed various strategies in practice, including digital tools, parental monitoring, and mental bucketing. The digital tools they utilized included budgeting apps, Excel spreadsheets, online banking, and calendar or note taking apps in their phone. Some examples of budgeting apps to keep track of budgets were Zoho Expense, Ahorro, Mobills, Money Manager, Spendee, and Savings Planner.

I have this app Mobills …I just type all my expenses in where I spent the money so it helps me track if I have exceeded the monthly limit. (27Nepalese, M/20 y, S, Degree)

Some participants relied on online banking, e-statements, or Excel spreadsheets to keep track of their budgets. One participant primarily used credit cards for spending: “I check my monthly statement and like …oh, this month I spent more on food. I should cut it down a bit.” (18Indian, M, WA, 26 y, Degree) Another participant updated his budget sheet almost daily, “I make sure I don’t cross the budget for daily food expenditures, so I separate expenditures of breakfast, lunch, and dinner. (35Filipino, M/28 y, W, S7)

Parental monitoring in budgeting was common, where parents set spending limits or kept the money to prevent their children from overspending. Participants were positive about parental monitoring:

I gave all my earnings to my mom and she’ll help save for me. After deducting the savings, she’ll allocate some for my spending. (11Pakistani, M/20 y, S, S6)

They won’t let me spend my own money so that they can keep track of what I do. …I’ll always show my mom what I bought. …I can say it is ‘control’ …but it’s good to have monitoring. (1Indian, F/23 y, S, Master’s)

However, some participants simply allocated money into different categories mentally. One said, “I don’t like keeping notes. Everything is in my mind.” (47Indian, M/18 y, W, S4), while another responded, “I just keep them in my mind, divided by categories.” (40Nepalese, F/21 y, W, SD)

Parental influence and experiential learning

Participants indicated that they acquired budgeting ideas through observing their parents and learning by doing, especially after earning their first income.

I’m learning from him [father], like how to save up money, how to spend it wisely, and how to spend it on only the important things and not to waste the money. (2Pakistani, M/22 y, S, SD)

It was around my university years when I was doing a part-time job and earning some money …my own concept of saving started to form. (18Indian, M/26 y, W, Degree)

Perceptions of budgeting

Most participants perceived budgeting positively, agreeing that it could provide a sense of control against overspending, as one said, “If you don’t have a budget, it’s really easy to overspend on stuff and you can’t control your money.” (47Indian, M/18 y, W, S4). Budgeting was also seen as a form of psychological restraint, evoking a sense of guilt when budget limits were exceeded, and fostering discipline for conscious spending:

It makes me feel guilty …kind of a warning …a yellow light that you’re spending more than you’re supposed to. … It’s psychological when I see a big number in the amount of expenses. (29Filipino, F/22 y, S, Degree)

However, many expressed the difficulty of maintaining a budgeting habit due to economic and personal challenges. Limited funds and high living costs posed economic challenges as there was not a lot of money to go around, as expressed by one participant, “I don’t really have a lot of money. …I don’t know how I can track it.” (4Indian, M/21 y, S, Degree) Another said, “It’s very difficult because nowadays all the things are pricey, but you just have a limited amount of money.” (28Filipino, F/19 y, S, S6)

Personal challenges relate to feelings that budgeting is demanding, requires much self-discipline, and causes stress. Some participants found it demanding as it was time-consuming and involved excessive work.

It sounds, you know, ridiculous to me …somewhat a waste of time. There’s a lot of data. (15Pakistani, F/25 y, S, Degree)

It’s tedious and it takes time to write down all the details. …The effort needed to keep track of things demotivates me. (34Indian, M/30 y, W, Degree)

Others found it difficult because they struggled with self-control. One said, “I want to buy many things like this and that. …It’s hard for me as I could not control myself.” (42Nepalese, F/25 y, W, SD) Others were reluctant to budget because it induced too much stress:

I think budgeting gives me a lot of stress. I just want to focus on making money, so I don’t have to worry about it. (31Filipino, M/22 y, S, Degree)

Constantly checking is kind of torturing me. …If I check it too much, I’ll get sad about my expenditure. (18Indian, M/26 y, W, Degree)

Nevertheless, a smaller proportion of participants who showed qualities such as determination and mathematical competence did not find budgeting as hard.

It’s just the willpower of a person. I don’t think there’s too much difficulty for me. (32Indian, M/29 y, W, Degree)

I have a strong mathematical background since I studied math a lot, so I don’t think numbers are a problem for me. (17Nepalese, M/18 y, S, Degree)

Spending decisions

Modest spending.

Many participants appeared to spend modestly and consciously. They generally allocated a higher portion of their budgets to basic needs. As many lived with their parents, they mostly spent money on food and transportation. Other major expenses included tuition fees, financial support for their families, rent, and personal entertainment.

I’d say 50% goes toward my food. …Insurance and everything, I’d say 20%. (38Indian, M/23 y, W, SD)

Half of my money goes to food and transportation, and the other half I’m saving for school fees and all that. (2Pakistani, M/22 y, S, SD)

Deferred purchase, bargain shopping, and one-time payment as strategies

Strategies in spending decisions included deferred purchases, bargain shopping, and one-time payments. One strategy employed was to re-evaluate spending decisions by deferring purchases:

When I shop, I double-think. … I’ll buy it a day or two later …to think about if I truly need it or not. (22Pakistani, F/25 y, W, S6)

Another common strategy was bargain shopping. Participants described how they bargain-hunted or waited for sales to get the best value for money.

If I go to buy a pair of shoes, then I like to go through the whole mall and see, you know, which one is really worth the money. (4Indian, M/21 y, S, Degree)

I’ll try my best to use as little money as I can. …I’ll check where I can get it the cheapest. (51Pakistani, M/25 y, W, Degree)

When making purchases, most preferred a one-time lump sum payment to avoid interest charges. One participant talked about the extra charges:

I used to buy in instalments with credit cards and I spent a lot, and I couldn’t pay some of the bills….Now I pay in lump sum, I find this very clear to your mind. …Nobody is calling you to pay for the minimum. (43Nepalese, M/28 y, W, Degree)

However, some paid in instalments, incurring interest on expensive products or when the budget was tight. Generally, an item costing more than HK$1000 (approximately US$125) was considered expensive.

If it’s around HK$500–$1000 (US$63–$125), I’ll spend a lump sum. But if it’s HK$5000 or HK$6,000 (US$625 or $750) like that, I’ll usually spend it on instalment. …When making it 12 months, I only need to pay HK$500. (51Pakistani, M/25 y, W, Degree)

Spending philosophies

Participants shared their perceptions about spending, revealing various spending philosophies such as differentiating between needs and wants, viewing spending as a work incentive, and embracing YOLO (You Only Live Once) spending. Conscious spenders distinguished between must-haves and nice-to-haves, ensuring they spent on what was necessary rather than what was desired.

When you buy something …you have to ask yourself whether you need it or want it, like you just think it’s cute. (25Pakistani, F/19 y, S, Master’s)

I often question whether I really need it …especially when it comes to luxury items like clothes and shoes. But for food, I do not compromise; for health, I do not compromise. (17Nepalese, M/18 y, S, Degree)

Some participants showed that spending was a motivation to work hard, as one said: “I base how much I work on my expenses. If I have many expenses coming up, I’ll try to work more.” (3Indian, M/21 y, S, Degree). Others embraced YOLO spending as a means of seeking happiness:

I didn’t want to decide how I was going to spend it. …You should never restrict yourself. Of course, you have savings. But for your spending, you should just go with whatever makes you happier. (18Indian, M/26 y, W, Degree)

You only live once! … It’s good to spend a little bit on something expensive. …With the money I earned …I deserve at least some to use on myself. (32Indian, M/29 y, W, Degree)

Financial planning

Savings habits and setting savings goals.

Many participants established a habit of saving. More than half said they allocated at least 30% of their monthly salary or pocket money to savings. Some started to save in childhood, but many did so after their first employment while their earnings served as resources for hands-on learning. One participant said, “When I started to earn my own money, I didn’t want to spend all of it. I want to save and learn about investments.” (29Filipino, F/22 y, S, Degree)

Depending on their life stage, those who saved set various saving goals. In addition to saving for education, some saved to buy property, start a family, build a business in their home country, or for retirement. Some described the goals:

I’ve always wanted to start a piggery business. …In the Philippines, …a full roasted pig we call it Lechon. It’s in every celebration. …There’s a market for that. …I want to start one because my uncle, sisters, and brothers are good at that. (29Filipino, F/22 y, S, Degree)

For the very long term, like for retirement, I’m setting aside 20% of my salary to invest in stocks and bonds. (34Indian, M/30 y, W, Degree)

Gaining financial autonomy was also mentioned as a goal, as recounted by one participant:

I’m never going to focus too much on my future husband. I’m not going to be financially dependent on another person. …I always thought …I’d get educated and then earn money. I’d not be together [with someone] and be scared of splitting just because of money. (10Nepalese, F/21 y, S, Degree)

External restraints and personal tricks as strategies

Participants employed various savings strategies. In addition to saving money in bank accounts, they used external assistance or restraints as strategies by having their parents or boyfriend save it for them:

My parents don’t want me to be spoiled with so much money. We often see that people who start earning money do some bad stuff, like getting into drugs, gaming, or going out with friends a lot. …I’m not doing all these. …But still, they keep my money. (49Filipino, M/19 y, W, S6)

I’ll give half of it [salary] to my boyfriend so I won’t be able to touch it. The remaining is for my spending. …He has a better concept of saving than me …and he helps me save. (16Indian, F/27 y, W, Degree)

Participants reported using various personal hacks, such as opening separate bank accounts for specified uses:

I have two different bank accounts. One is strictly for saving money. …The other one is for paying bills and spending on things like necessities. (35Filipino, M/28 y, W, S7)

When I started my job, I only had a Hang Seng bank account. Then I specifically opened an HSBC account to keep my education savings there. …If you see a large amount of money, it makes you less intelligent about your expenditure because it projects an illusion that you have a lot of money. (48Indian, M/24 y, W, Degree)

Another example was a four-wallet strategy to divide money into smaller portions for designated purposes:

One wallet is for saving money. …If I buy something and I get some money left, I put it in the second wallet. The third wallet is for putting money that I couldn’t touch, like paying for my violin lessons and the dentist. …The fourth wallet is for transportation. (30Filipino, F/21 y, W, SD)

Another strategy was simply stashing cash away under the mattress or in other hidden places to reduce its accessibility:

I have like HK$10,000 (US$1250) under my mattress. Every month I have HK$1000 (US$12.5) …a hundred of $10 s …put inside my mattress, and I would sleep on it. My goal is …to the point if I can’t sleep properly, I have enough money. …Some people have their piggy bank I have my mattress. (31Filipino, M/22 y, S, Degree)

Sometimes I took all the money out and put it in a more hidden place like I can literally forget about it. (28Filipino, F/19 y, S, S6)

Perceptions of financial planning

Most participants agreed that financial planning and saving were important. Some thought of it as a grown-up responsibility. As adults, they were responsible for making financial plans and avoiding irresponsible purchases:

I already feel ashamed that I’ve been asking for pocket money from my parents. …I think it’s because we’re Asian, …we depend a lot on our parents. I don’t really want to live like that. …I want to be able to stand up on my feet. (10Nepalese, F/21 y, S, Degree)

I feel like after turning 18, …it’s important to budget your money, save it, invest it, and not make stupid and foolish purchases. (19Indian, M/19 y, S, Degree)

Financial planning was seen as a safeguard against financial shocks, offering a sense of emotional wellness or peace of mind as they knew they had backup resources. This was particularly important after they experienced the COVID-19 pandemic and became motivated to be well-prepared:

It taught me that no job is stable …even pilots get laid off. …Your income is not always there. You always have to be prepared for it. (41Nepalese, M/22 y, W, Degree)

You can have a fire break out in your house, you can have your stuff get stolen, you can get hit by cancer, and even this pandemic. So financial planning is extremely important. (21Pakistani, F/23 y, W, Degree)

It’s like a comfort …in case anything goes wrong in your life. It’s always good to have a backup plan …and you always have something to protect you. (35Filipino, M/28 y, W, S7)

Nevertheless, not all participants were positive about financial planning; some valued income generation over saving money:

Saving isn’t super important to me because I feel I should be earning more than I should be able to save. …If I am earning more, I don’t have to worry about saving. (31Filipino, M/22 y, S, Degree)

Some also felt they were not good at saving because of inadequate self-discipline and limited money: “The reality …is that my income is really not a lot at all. And I recognize there’s a limit on how much I can stretch, even if I really want to stretch it.” (36Filipino, M/26 y, W, Degree)

The use of financial products

A diverse range of financial products.

Participants reported using various financial products or investments. Insurance was most frequently mentioned, followed by stocks, and other choices, including cryptocurrency, index funds, and forex trading. Buying property or gold in their home country as conventional investments was popular, as the older generations have done.

Different types of insurance, including life, medical, accident, and critical illness, were purchased and considered safe and flexible:

My insurance is three years old. …If something bad happens, I can use it. If I don’t use it after 20 years, it’s my money, so it’s like a saving. (43Nepalese, M/28 y, W, Degree)

All of them are index funds because the management cost is low and it’s simple to set up. It’s set and forget, no need to actively manage. (34Indian, M/30 y, W, Degree)

Buying property or gold in the home country was popular. Like their parents, they made or were planning to make these investments as they believed their value would steadily increase:

Dad bought properties in Pakistan and the values increase every year as it’s on the main side of the road. …The more convenient the properties, the higher the price it is. …Three are under my name, others under my siblings’ name. (22Pakistani, F/25 y, W, S6)

Buying property is safer compared to stocks. …Buying it overseas is a lot safer …because the property in Hong Kong is a lot more expensive. (31Filipino, M/22 y, S, Degree)

I can use this gold in my wedding … it’s kind of holding money because I don’t think the gold price will drop. It’s a good investment. (53Nepalese, F/25 y, W, Degree)

Parental support, peer mentoring, and self-education as strategies

Participants employed various means of obtaining information and experiencing financial products, including parental support, peer assistance, and self-education with online resources. Some parents were supportive by providing funds for hands-on learning in stock investment or opportunities for joint investment:

My dad gave me a small amount of money just to learn. …Because the only way you can learn is you do it yourself. …He helped me set up my account and everything and then I started. (19Indian, M/19 y, S, Degree)

I invested with the help of my mom. …She invested and got a return and she gave me the interests. (10Nepalese, F/21 y, S, Degree)

Assistance from financially savvy friends was also a way to enhance their knowledge and gain experience in stocks, insurance, or setting up a business:

I have a group of friends and we all invest in stocks. We like to give each other tips like, “I’m going to invest in this …maybe you should take a look at this.” Or sometimes before they invest, they ask “What do you think about this company?” And then I do my research …like we help each other. (19Indian, M/19 y, S, Degree)

My friends are in Pakistan …their family has been investing in property and stocks. …They bought their own shisha lounge recently. …I discussed with them: What was the cost? How much should I save for starting up this kind of stuff? (22Pakistani, F/25 y, W, S6)

Another strategy was self-education, by reading news, studying company information, and surfing the internet and YouTube for tutorials and knowledge:

I see the performance of their company around 5 or 10 years. Then I see the future analysis …how the company will perform in the future. (13Pakistani, M/23 y, W, Degree)

There are a lot of tutorials online or on YouTube. … There are also a lot of good pages that talk about investing. … It’s easily obtainable. (10Nepalese, F/21 y, S, Degree)

Perceptions of using financial products

Participants expressed different views about using financial products. The favorable view held that financial products acted as a passive form of income and could help protect against inflation, as one participant expressed, “It’s good to buy stocks because it’s like passive income. You can do your job when it also generates income.” (43Nepalese, M/28 y, W, Degree)

However, some viewed it unfavorably as they thought investment carried substantial risk. In particular, stock investment was akin to gambling, which involved taking chances and the possibility of losing hard-earned money:

You are literally gambling …the price of shares would rise or fall suddenly. …Just in days, you could lose so much. That’s why my aim is to look for a professional job so that I don’t have to depend on unexpected business. (17Nepalese, M/18 y, S, Degree)

Some others held unfavorable views due to their own or their families’ and friends’ negative experiences resulting from poor understanding of financial products:

I bought stock and I sold it. …If I had kept it a bit longer, I could have gotten a much higher return. …I just sold it based on rumors that the stock won’t go up. (27Nepalese, M/20 y, S, Degree)

My uncle didn’t know how to play it. He just went to the bank and was told to invest this and that without any explanation. …In the end, he lost a lot of money. (26Nepalese, F/21 y, S, Degree)

Sometimes, the lack of understanding of financial products could result from language barriers. One participant referred to the Mandatory Provident Fund (MPF), a compulsory pension fund in Hong Kong, as an example:

If you go to work, your employer won’t tell you what’s this or that. They just give you the MPF paper. …People don’t know what’s written there. They just sign it. Which product is better? They don’t know. (2Pakistani, M/22 y, S, SD)

Debt management

Borrowing money as a common practice.

It was quite common for participants to take out loans from different sources, including family, friends, the government, and financial institutions. Some borrowed money from their parents or siblings. Due to close family ties and strong support, paying back the loan was not always expected. Some would also borrow from friends despite feeling uneasy about it:

I had zero income and my wife is jobless. …I felt it was a shame to borrow from my parents. …I asked my brother who is in Qatar. …It’s like a brother thing. He just sent it to me and …no need to return it. (14Pakistani, M/28 y, W, Degree)

To be broke on the 25th of the month but your salary only comes on the 31st. …Those few days you have to live …so I have to borrow from my friend. (38Indian, M/23 y, W, SD)

Some participants who were or had been students took out government student loans for educational expenses:

Hong Kong is so expensive, and so are school fees. I can’t pay it all at once so I had to borrow from the government. (23Filipino, F/23 y, W, Degree)

Some participants borrowed money from banks to buy an apartment. Others borrowed from lending institutions charging high interest rates to pay for tuition fees, buy iPads, or pay off credit card debts. They described their own or their friends’ experiences:

I have a period of time without a job. I have to pay with a credit card every month. I’ve skipped one month …and they started to call me and I was irritated. …Then I realized …why I wouldn’t start to do research tracking the annual rate, and at last, I decided to go to this loan company. (26Nepalese, F/21 y, S, Degree)

My friend found it hard to pay back because the interest rate was high. …She graduated last year and she has only worked for a few months. …She has to pay for the loan and to pay for her credit cards. (22Pakistani, F/25 y, W, S6)

Mostly safe credit card usage with some risks

Approximately one-third of participants owned a credit card. Occasionally, some used their parents’, siblings’, or friends’ credit cards, with approval, when they could not get their own, as illustrated by one participant:

My friend doesn’t use her credit card much. …I just took hers, bought things, and on the same spot transferred money to her account. (22Pakistani, F/25 y, W, S6)

Most credit card users could settle their bills on time, like one who said, “Unlike others who may pay it last minute. I pay it immediately after receiving the statements.” (48Indian, M/24 y, W, Degree)

However, some participants only paid the minimum due on credit cards, especially due to ignorance about interest charges. One did not know the consequences of doing so:

I was studying for an associate degree and I wanted to get as high marks as possible. I thought that if I got into the university then I could pay for them all afterwards, so there’s no pressure if I give minimum payment every month. …I didn’t realize about the interest. I swiped a lot. (26Nepalese, F/21 y, S, Degree)

Perceptions of debt management

Participants considered borrowing money was shameful and could hurt their social relationships. Borrowing money was associated with shame and guilt, especially for people capable of working, instead of borrowing money from others:

We have everything to earn money. … We’re healthy. We have all the physical and mental ability to work. …So we don’t have to depend on other people. (5Indian, M/22 y, S, Degree)

The shame is that …if God has given me a healthy body and I have my hands fine, if I can walk, if I can work, then why go ask someone for anything? (14Pakistani, M/28 y, W, Degree)

Others thought that borrowing money could create tensions with friends or relatives, especially if money was not returned:

Some friends of mine have taken money from me …but they don’t return it. … They’ll say, “I still don’t have money.” …What the bank does is good …charge the interest from them. (52Indian, F/29 y, W, Master’s)

You lend money to relatives or friends …but they might not return it to you. They might not pick up your phones. They might go away from the city. …That’s what I’ve heard….I don’t think they call the police …at the end they are family. (17Nepalese, M/18 y, S, Degree)

Participants considered credit cards to be convenient, and they enjoyed the reward systems. One said, “It’s like an Octopus card Footnote 2 but is more widely used, especially for online shopping. And it’s convenient …you can accumulate points for more savings.” (35Filipino, M/28 y, W, S7) However, many were also aware that credit card use could lead to uncontrollable spending because they could easily overlook how much they had spent:

If I had one, I would go non-stop shopping because I have pressure at work. Who wouldn’t go shopping after work? (38Indian, M/23 y, W, SD)

When you take out your money, you know your limit. Like if your wallet has $5,000 and you’re using it, you’ll notice how much money you’ve left. But credit cards …you’ll keep using it. (8Pakistani, M/23 y, W, SD)

Detecting fraud

Fraud victimization experiences.

Participants were vulnerable to fraud; some shared stories about falling or almost falling for scams or had heard about friends being scammed, relating to possible charity scams, unnecessary lab tests, online gaming, investment fraud, and money lent but not returned. One participant believed he had been scammed when he was asked for a donation on the street:

I’ve been scammed once on the street by a man who’s requesting money for their own institution from their own country. It involves children who are sick. …Because I was young and naive, I didn’t ask them for validation. Although he wanted to scam more money at the time, I didn’t carry too much. (35Filipino, M/28 y, W, S7)

There were unnecessary medical lab tests:

They said they got funding from the government. They did 10 different cancer tests on me for $4000. My mom was very angry about why I did it. She said it’s a scam because I’m so young. I won’t have any cancer right now. (1Indian, F/23 y, S, Master’s)

Money was lost due to an online scam:

There was once an email …saying if you put $10,000 on this account, we’ll give you $20,000 …that kind of scam …but I didn’t do it. …The second time when I bought a computer game online, they just asked me to send some money in advance. …They totally scammed me and then blocked me. (44Nepalese, M/20 y, W, S6)

Friends had also experienced investment fraud:

I have a friend who invested in …some sort of software soccer game. …He saw an advertisement online in a newspaper. He invested and then the money was just gone. …He lost HK$5000. (6Pakistani, M/25 y, W, S6)

They called and encouraged my friend to put in money and said, “…This is very good. You can earn a lot. You can be a rich person. You can do whatever you want to do.” She put a little bit to see. After six months, they kept calling and saying she was doing well, she could do better. And they got everything on that scam and they never called back. (43Nepalese, M/28 y, W, Degree)

Strategies and perceptions for detecting fraud

Participants reported that the flood of suspicious calls and messages they received, and uncertainty about whether they were genuine or not, exposed them to potential scams.

I don’t know if it’s a scam. …I got calls for buying currencies from them. They told me the whole plan, and I’d even go into a discussion and I was close to paying them. I’ve been near that. (49Filipino, M/19 y, W, S6)

Once I borrowed money and after that many financial companies have my number. …They ask what my name is and ask for my information. …I didn’t give them because I know they might want to get my bank information … it’s not safe. (8Pakistani, M/23 y, W, SD)

They also talked about how to avoid scams by understanding their psychology as emotional manipulation to induce feelings of guilt:

They try to confuse you with a lot of situations to guilt trip you. They make you feel bad about other people. They try to trick you into thinking that your life is a lot better than theirs. …They can make you feel good about giving money. … They’re mentally threatening you not in a bad way. …If you have a strong personality, you can fight back easily. But if you’re naive, it can be quite difficult. (35Filipino, M/28 y, W, S7)

Participants reported pretending they did not understand Cantonese (the local spoken language in Hong Kong) or simply ignoring dubious calls or messages as tactics to tackle potential scams:

I think it’s funny because I can speak okay Cantonese. Whenever I get calls from banks or something, I always ask, “Can you speak in English?” and then they just disconnect. (22Pakistani, F/25 y, W, S6)

Some unknown WhatsApp messages are frequent. But I’d ignore them as I know they are dangerous. (30Filipino, F/21 y, W, SD)

This study has various implications. It contributes to conceptual or theoretical understanding, provides insights into practical strategies, and offers directions for further research.

Knowledge or theoretical contributions

Financial decision-making experiences.

This study has contributed knowledge to addressing the research gap by revealing the financial decision-making experiences of younger ethnic minorities in a non-Western context. We examined their behaviors, strategies, and perceptions across a range of financial decisions, including personal budgeting, spending, financial planning, the use of financial products, debt management, and detecting fraud. Many ethnic minority young adults practiced budgeting, using digital tools, parental monitoring, and mental bucketing. They learned about budgeting by observing their parents and gaining hands-on experience with their own earnings. Budgeting was challenging due to limited funds, high living expenses, time demands, stress, and self-control issues. Most were modest spenders, prioritizing basic needs like food and transportation and employing strategies like deferred purchases, bargain shopping, and lump-sum payments. Some opted for instalment payments for expensive items, and when their budget was tight. When spending, they differentiated between needs and wants, sought value for money, worked to meet their spending needs, and purchased for happiness. Saving at least one-third of their monthly income, they utilized external assistance and personal tricks. Their long-term saving goals encompassed education, housing, family, business, retirement, and female autonomy. Financial planning was perceived as an adult responsibility, a safeguard against emergencies, and ensuring peace of mind. They invested in insurance, stocks, cryptocurrency, index funds, forex trading, property, and gold. Parental support, peer mentoring, and self-learning influenced their investment decisions. Lack of knowledge and language barriers may contribute to negative perceptions or experiences of financial products. Informal borrowing from family and friends was commonplace, while others resorted to government or lending institution loans. Around one-third owned a credit card. Most used them safely, but risks exist when using someone else’s card, or they are ignorant about interest charges. They were aware of financial scams and employed preventive strategies like understanding the psychology of scams and ignoring scammers, although they occasionally fell victim to fraud.

Enabling factors to financial decision-making

Factors affecting financial literacy are widely understood in the literature, but less has been examined regarding the factors affecting financial decision-making. Based on the financial decision-making experiences, we further identified various factors or conditions that facilitated ethnic minority young adults’ financial decision-making and enabled them to make better financial decisions. While some other factors acted as barriers, awareness of these barriers and taking action to address them can transform them into enabling factors. The enabling factors include family social capital, intrapersonal characteristics, social dynamics factors, command of knowledge, and facilitative contextual circumstances. These insights can help devise financial literacy education for ethnic minority young adults.

Family social capital. Family social capital enables families to leverage both material and symbolic resources to benefit their members (Furstenberg and Kaplan, 2004 ). In this study family social capital played a crucial role in participants’ financial decision-making, as shown by the resources and support derived from the family relationships, including the passing down of money-related attitudes, norms, and behavior from one generation to another and between siblings. Both intergenerational support and sibling support are key components of this family social capital. In the study, intergenerational support was demonstrated through parental role modeling and involvement. While participants did not mention direct teaching of financial education by parents, parents served as role models from whom their children observed and learned financial attitudes and behaviors. This was how participants acquired their ideas of budgeting. Parents also actively coached financial decision-making by monitoring budgeting, setting spending limits, supervising saving, providing funds to help set up stock accounts, offering joint investment opportunities, and providing financial assistance. Sibling support refers to the emotional and practical support provided by siblings. Study participants sought help from their siblings or provided financial assistance to one another during financial difficulties, as shown by their lending money to each other to avoid unnecessary interest charges that may arise from resorting to other sources. Strong family social capital can be attributed to cultural values emphasizing family relationships, filial piety, and respect for parents.

Intrapersonal characteristics. Intrapersonal characteristics, which comprise personal attributes and life perspectives, are evident in facilitating ethnic minority young adults’ financial decision-making. Personal attributes such as self-motivation, self-discipline, and other competencies play a role. Self-motivation is an inner force that compels behavior (Waitley, 2010 ) and gives people energy to initiate actions and persist in efforts to attain a goal (Robbins and Judge, 2022 ). This study revealed self-motivation to be important in financial decision-making, such as budgeting, as it is difficult for those with lower motivation to sustain a budgeting habit when they consider budgeting as demanding, time consuming, and excessive in work. Self-discipline involves being able to control one’s impulses and desires in favor of long-term goals (American Psychological Association, 2023 ). Participants expressed the importance of self-discipline in successful budgeting, saving, and spending. Math competencies ease financial decisions. Those with numeracy skills tend to feel it easy to engage in budgeting.

Life perspectives are about people’s overall views of life, which include personal philosophies and future orientation and facilitate ethnic minority young adults’ financial decisions. Personal philosophies, which are values and attitudes that can be shaped by personal experiences and family and cultural influences, guide people’s decisions. Spending philosophies can be part of an expression of personal philosophies. Study participants exhibited various personal philosophies, such as simplicity-based, enjoyment-based, and work-to-spend philosophies, reflected in their spending philosophies. Simplicity-based living philosophy emphasizes a minimalist lifestyle over material possessions, as evident in the differentiation between needs and wants in spending philosophy. Enjoyment-based living philosophy values pleasures and living in the present moment, as reflected in the YOLO style of spending philosophy. A work-to-spend philosophy underscores the importance of working hard to support desired spending levels and is shown by the work-as-incentive spending philosophy.

Future orientation is the ability to anticipate future events, give them personal meaning, and operate with them mentally (Nurmi, 1991 ). It is associated with future-oriented behaviors, such as planning and delayed gratification (Strathman et al., 1994 ). This study suggests that individuals with saving goals tend to have a stronger future orientation as they plan for long-term objectives such as education, starting a family, property investments, and retirement. Those who practice delayed gratification by deferring purchases also show future-oriented tendencies.

Social dynamics factors. Social dynamics factors include peer support and vigilance within ethnic communities. Peer support involves ethnic minority young adults helping each other to make financial decisions through monitoring, mentoring, and collaborating to keep track of each other’s financial behaviors towards goals, offer practical advice in planning decisions, and share tips and efforts in decision-making, respectively. For example, peer monitoring serves as a social restraint to help those who struggle with saving. Peer advice is sought concerning investments in their home countries. Collaboration facilitates joint decision-making on buying stocks. Peers, along with parents, also serve as financial socialization agents.

Vigilance in ethnic minority communities is needed to prevent exploitation, as trust is often presumed within these communities. In the study, trust was demonstrated in the common practice of informal borrowing. Although informal loans can be enforced by social or community ties, they are not without risk. Without legal loan agreements, the possibility of bad debts or scams can arise, and did occur within participants’ communities.

Knowledge proficiency. Knowledge proficiency refers to the command of knowledge essential for making informed financial decisions. There are two types of knowledge. The first applies to a range of financial concepts required to navigate choices in everyday financial situations, such as knowledge of effective saving strategies, information on different financial products, and interest charges for instalment plans, loans, and minimum payments on credit cards. It is important, as the study revealed possible risks and negative experiences among participants stemming from a lack of caution or knowledge, like stashing cash away and ignorance of high interest rates when repaying minimum amounts on credit card debts or loans from lending companies. This type of knowledge is also important considering the potential issue of misinformation. Many participants were interested in using financial products such as insurance policies and stocks in Hong Kong and property investment in their home countries. However, their reliance on self-learning through online resources, such as YouTube’s KOL, or listening to peers exposed them to the risks of misinformation. For instance, one participant regretted making a poor decision to sell stocks based on hearsay, lacking proper knowledge of how stocks work.

The second type of knowledge involves protection against fraud. While participants tried to avoid suspicious messages and calls, some fell victim to various scams, accentuating the importance of being equipped with proactive measures, as the ones used, simply ignoring them, appear passive. Familiarizing oneself with common forms of fraud, exercising caution with offers that seem too good to be true, accessing scam alert information, knowing how to report scams, and understanding one’s legal rights when encountering scams would be good anti-fraud measures to learn.

Facilitative contextual circumstances. Various contextual circumstances, including leverage of real-life lessons, access to technology, and language accessibility, can be influential in ethnic minority young adults’ financial decisions. This study shows that the employment and pandemic experiences have been translated into real-life lessons to acquire financial knowledge and attitudes. The first earnings from employment nurtured the ideas of budgeting and financial planning, and provided opportunities for acquiring relevant skills. This suggests that promoting financial planning strategies and saving habits earlier, at least before starting employment, is beneficial. Individuals can avoid making unnecessary mistakes and enter smoothly the world of work that requires many financial decisions. Due to the pandemic, some participants experienced a positive change in their financial attitudes. They realized the importance of preparing for economic uncertainty and were eager to improve their financial planning.

Technology not only provides easy access to online financial materials, but can also facilitate financial decision-making using digital tools, which are particularly useful for following budgeting and tracking expenses. As many participants considered budgeting to be arduous, it can be made easier by adopting technological aids.

Finally, language accessibility can affect the acquisition of financial literacy. Participants’ negative experiences with financial products, such as bank products or MPF, for instance, largely stemmed from a lack of understanding that can also be compounded by a language barrier.

Enriched understanding of financial socialization

Family social capital as an enabling factor of financial decisions aligns with the theory of financial socialization, referring to the process of developing values, attitudes, standards, norms, knowledge, and behaviors promoting financial viability and individual well-being (Danes, 1994 ). Research shows that parents are important socialization agents influencing financial attitudes, such as credit attitudes (Norvilitis et al., 2006 ). Despite arguments suggesting that parental importance declines as children get older (Danes, 1994 ) and peers take on greater influence (John, 1999 ), this study shows that ethnic minority young adults continue to rely heavily on their parents for financial guidance. The findings of this study extend the understanding of financial socialization processes by recognizing the persistent and exceptionally influential roles of ethnic minority parents. Other research also supports that ethnic minority young adults seek parental advice on important education and employment decisions (Chan et al., 2020 ).

Practical implications

The findings on enabling factors and various behaviors shed light on practical suggestions for enhancing financial literacy education, which, in turn, improves the financial decision-making of ethnic minority young adults.

First, in relation to family social capital, if parental influence remains strong in young adulthood, it may be strategically beneficial to involve ethnic minority parents, either as target participants or partners, in tailored financial literacy education.

Second, to promote holistic financial literacy education for ethnic minority young adults, it is necessary to address their specific personal attributes and life perspectives as attitude components, in addition to increasing general financial knowledge and skills. Self-discipline, self-motivation, spending philosophies, and future orientation could be positively fostered by taking into account the unique challenges they face in financial literacy education.

Third, in response to social dynamic factors, while ensuring the accuracy of shared financial information, peer influence can be capitalized on for effective financial literacy education by utilizing collaboration as a learning approach and developing peer mentoring to optimize mutual learning experiences. Also, addressing vigilance in community trust and the potential risks associated with informal loans are important topics to be included in financial literacy education.

Fourth, concerning knowledge proficiency, financial literacy education should incorporate the two essential types of knowledge required for making financial decisions. This includes knowledge about everyday financial situations—such as the use of various financial products, the consequences of different credit card payment options, and the interest rate information associated with formal debts—as well as knowledge about proactive anti-fraud strategies.

Fifth, in response to facilitative contextual circumstances, the current post-pandemic period is an opportune time to offer ethnic minority young adults financial literacy education to capitalize on their increased motivation to learn and improve their financial decisions. Also, as smartphone use is indispensable among young people, including ethnic minorities, user-friendly budgeting apps that fit well their financial situations can help make budgeting efficient, stress-free, and engaging. Moreover, it is important to provide financial literacy education that takes into consideration language needs to ensure a thorough grasp of financial concepts. For instance, interpretation support can ease language barriers. However, in the long run, policy interventions in the educational system, such as remedial language support and learning Chinese at a young age, are necessary.

Last, various financial behaviors prone to mental accounting bias should be addressed in financial literacy education to equip ethnic minority young adults with the skills to make optimal decisions. Mental accounting refers to the cognitive operations to organize, create mental labels, and keep track of money or financial activities (Thaler, 1985 ). An important concept in this theory is that money is fungible or interchangeable, regardless of its source or purpose. However, people often violate this principle and see money differently, resulting in suboptimal decisions. For instance, some participants might treat credit cards as different mental accounts. They were willing to spend more on credit cards compared to cash, as there seems to be no loss at the time of purchase and the payment can be deferred. This could lead to overspending. Also, in saving, some might stash cash away under the mattress, ignoring the interest earnings from a savings account. Other possible behaviors could be funding a low-interest savings account while carrying high-interest debt.

Research implications

Further research can address several issues or limitations. First, since ethnic Chinese young adults did not participate in this study, their inclusion in future research would facilitate a more comprehensive investigation. As young adults, they likely share similarities, such as spending philosophies, self-learning about financial information, and exposure to potential scams. However, differences may also exist in certain areas. The use of external restraint and personal hacks in financial matters, such as strong roles of parents and boyfriends in monitoring spending, and stashing cash away was less commonly observed among Chinese young adults. Informal borrowing and property investment in their home country were also unique characteristics of ethnic minority young adults. Further research can confirm these possibilities.

Second, this study may not fully reflect the situation of ethnic minority young adults with a lower socio-economic status. This is because the sample was generally well educated, as half of the participants had an undergraduate degree, and almost one-fifth educated to secondary education. In addition, the interviews were conducted in English, indicating a good command of the language among the participants. Future research may include those who are less socioeconomically advantaged as they may have different mechanisms surrounding financial decision-making.

Third, the relative influence of parents and peers across life stages, as well as differences in intrapersonal characteristics as facilitating factors between ethnic minority and non-ethnic minority young people, can be investigated to offer insights into tailored financial literacy education.

Moreover, we acknowledge the limitation of small sample size in a qualitative study, which aims to reveal themes for the financial literacy of ethnic minority young adults, an underexamined group. A future quantitative study for a larger population will be needed to allow for a broader generalization.

This study examined financial decision-making among ethnic minority young adults in Hong Kong and identified major enabling factors for their financial decision-making. Ethnic minority young adults employed strategies for budgeting, but they also found budgeting challenging. They had various spending philosophies, while basic needs were mostly a priority. Saving at least one-third of their income was common, and they had long-term financial planning goals. They used financial products both in Hong Kong and their home countries. Informal borrowing was common, despite some turning to other sources of loans. One-third used credit cards, incurring occasional risks. They were aware of scams and employed protective tactics, but still fell victim to scams.

Enabling factors to financial decisions included family social capital, intrapersonal characteristics, social dynamics factors, knowledge proficiency, and facilitative contextual circumstances. To enhance financial decision-making among ethnic minority young adults, the following can be considered. First, leveraging parental influence by involving them in financial education efforts. Second, fostering positive financial attitudes alongside increasing financial knowledge for a holistic financial education. Third, optimizing peer influence through collaborative learning and peer mentoring and raising awareness about community trust and potential issues with informal borrowing. Fourth, covering financial concepts for everyday financial decision-making and mental accounting bias, as well as practical knowledge for fraud prevention. Fifth, capitalizing on pre-employment and post-pandemic periods for timely financial education. Sixth, developing tailored digital tools and language support for specific ethnic communities. Finally, conducting further research is necessary. This includes the inclusion of ethnic Chinese and ethnic minority young people from various socioeconomic backgrounds and investigating the relative importance of parental and peer influence across different age groups. Moreover, comparing the intrapersonal characteristics as facilitating factors between ethnic minority and non-ethnic minority young people and expanding studies to include a larger population to enable generalization are also important.

Data availability

The data analysed during this study are not publicly available to protect research participant privacy but are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Information in parentheses denotes participant ID with ethnicity, gender and age, status as studying or working (S or W), and educational level, respectively. Education level may refer to the level of secondary school (e.g., S6), sub-degree (SD), Bachelor’s degree (Degree), or Master’s degree (Master’s).

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The research project was funded by the Investor and Financial Education Council in Hong Kong while the author was working at Hong Kong Baptist University. The research was conducted at that time. This paper was supported by the Children and Youth Research Centre and an Institutional Development Grant of Saint Francis University, Hong Kong, following the author’s transition to the new position at that university.

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Cho, E.YN. A qualitative investigation of financial decision-making and enabling factors among ethnic minority young adults in Hong Kong. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 11 , 1113 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-03605-1

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Speaker 1: In this video, we're going to dive into the topic of qualitative coding, which you'll need to understand if you plan to undertake qualitative analysis for any dissertation, thesis, or research project. We'll explain what exactly qualitative coding is, the different coding approaches and methods, and how to go about coding your data step by step. So go ahead, grab a cup of coffee, grab a cup of tea, whatever works for you, and let's jump into it. Hey, welcome to Grad Coach TV, where we demystify and simplify the oftentimes intimidating world of academic research. My name's Emma, and today we're going to explore qualitative coding, an essential first step in qualitative analysis. If you'd like to learn more about qualitative analysis or research methodology in general, we've also got videos covering those topics, so be sure to check them out. I'll include the links below. If you're new to Grad Coach TV, hit that subscribe button for more videos covering all things research related. Also, if you're looking for hands-on help with your qualitative coding, check out our one-on-one coaching services, where we hold your hand through the coding process step by step. Alternatively, if you're looking to fast track your coding, we also offer a professional coding service, where our seasoned qualitative experts code your data for you, ensuring high-quality initial coding. If that sounds interesting to you, you can learn more and book a free consultation at gradcoach.com. All right, with that out of the way, let's get into it. To kick things off, let's start by understanding what a code is. At the simplest level, a code is a label that describes a piece of content. For example, in the sentence, pigeons attacked me and stole my sandwich, you could use pigeons as a code. This code would simply describe that the sentence involves pigeons. 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With deductive coding, you'll make use of predetermined codes, also called a priori codes, which are developed before you interact with the present data. This usually involves drawing up a set of codes based on a research question or previous research from your literature review. You could also use an existing code set from the codebook of a previous study. For example, if you were studying the eating habits of college students, you might have a research question along the lines of, what foods do college students eat the most? As a result of this research question, you might develop a code set that includes codes such as sushi, pizza, and burgers. You'd then code your data set using only these codes, regardless of what you find in the data. On the upside, the deductive approach allows you to undertake your analysis with a very tightly focused lens and quickly identify relevant data, avoiding distractions and detours. 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Essentially, the hybrid coding approach provides the best of both worlds, which is why it's pretty common to see this in research. All right, now that we've covered what qualitative coding is and the overarching approaches, let's dive into the actual coding process and look at how to undertake the coding. So, let's take a look at the actual coding process step by step. Whether you adopt an inductive or deductive approach, your coding will consist of two stages, initial coding and line-by-line coding. In the initial coding stage, the objective is to get a general overview of the data by reading through and understanding it. If you're using an inductive approach, this is also where you'll develop an initial set of codes. Then in the second stage, line-by-line coding, you'll delve deeper into the data and organize it into a formalized set of codes. Let's take a look at these stages of qualitative coding in more detail. Stage one, initial coding. The first step of the coding process is to identify the essence of the text and code it accordingly. While there are many qualitative analysis software options available, you can just as easily code text-based data using Microsoft Word's comments feature. In fact, if it's your first time coding, it's oftentimes best to just stick with Word as this eliminates the additional need to learn new software. Importantly, you should avoid the temptation of any sort of automated coding software or service. No matter what promises they make, automated software simply cannot compare to human-based coding as it can't understand the subtleties of language and context. Don't waste your time with this. In all likelihood, you'll just end up having to recode everything yourself anyway. Okay, so let's take a look at a practical example of the coding process. Assume you had the following interview data from two interviewees. In the initial stage of coding, you could assign the code of pets or animals. These are just initial fairly broad codes that you can and will develop and refine later. In the initial stage, broad rough codes are fine. They're just a starting point which you will build onto later when you undertake line-by-line coding. So, at this stage, you're probably wondering how to decide what codes to use, especially when there are so many ways to read and interpret any given sentence. Well, there are a few different coding methods you can adopt and the right method will depend on your research aims and research questions. In other words, the way you code will depend on what you're trying to achieve with your research. Five common methods utilized in the initial coding stage include in vivo coding, process coding, descriptive coding, structural coding, and value coding. These are not the only methods available, but they're a useful starting point. Let's take a look at each of them to understand how and when each method could be useful. Method number one, in vivo coding. When you use in vivo coding, you make use of a participant's own words rather than your interpretation of the data. In other words, you use direct quotes from participants as your codes. By doing this, you'll avoid trying to infer meaning by staying as close to the original phrases and words as possible. In vivo coding is particularly useful when your data are derived from participants who speak different languages or come from different cultures. In cases like these, it's often difficult to accurately infer meaning thanks to linguistic and or cultural differences. For example, English speakers typically view the future as in front of them and the past as behind them. However, this isn't the same in all cultures. Speakers of Aymara view the past as in front of them and the future as behind them. Why? Because the future is unknown. It must be out of sight or behind them. They know what happened in the past so their perspective is that it's positioned in front of them where they can see it. In a scenario like this one, it's not possible to derive the reason for viewing the past as in front and the future as behind without knowing the Aymara culture's perception of time. Therefore, in vivo coding is particularly useful as it avoids interpretation errors. While this case is a unique one, it illustrates the point that different languages and cultures can view the same things very differently, which would have major impacts on your data. Method number two, process coding. Next up, there's process coding, which makes use of action-based codes. Action-based codes are codes that indicate a movement or procedure. These actions are often indicated by gerunds, that is words ending in ing. For example, running, jumping, or singing. Process coding is useful as it allows you to code parts of data that aren't necessarily spoken but that are still important to understand the meaning of the text. For example, you may have action codes such as describing a panda, singing a song, or arguing with a relative. Another example would be if a participant were to say something like, I have no idea where she is. A sentence like this could be interpreted in many different ways depending on the context and movements of the participant. The participant could, for example, shrug their shoulders, which would indicate that they genuinely don't know where the girl is. Alternatively, they could wink, suggesting that they do actually know where the girl is. Simply put, process coding is useful as it allows you to, in a concise manner, identify occurrences in a set of data that are not necessarily spoken and to provide a dynamic account of events. Method number three, descriptive coding. Descriptive coding is a popular coding method that aims to summarize extracts by using a single word that encapsulates the general idea of the data. These words will typically describe the data in a highly condensed manner, which allows you as the researcher to quickly refer to the content. For example, a descriptive code could be food, when coding a video clip that involves a group of people discussing what they ate throughout the day, or cooking, when coding an image showing the steps of a recipe. Descriptive coding is very useful when dealing with data that appear in forms other than text. For example, video clips, sound recordings, or images. It's also particularly useful when you want to organize a large data set by topic area. This makes descriptive coding a popular choice for many research projects. Method number four, structural coding. True to its name, structural coding involves labeling and describing specific structural attributes of the data. Generally, it includes coding according to answers of the questions of who, what, where, and how, rather than the actual topics expressed in the data. For example, if you were coding a collection of dissertations, which would be quite a large data set, structural coding might be useful as you could code according to different sections within each of these documents. Coding what centric labels, such as hypotheses, literature review, and methodology, would help you to efficiently refer to sections and navigate without having to work through sections of data all over again. So, structural coding is useful when you want to access segments of data quickly, and it can help tremendously when you're dealing with large data sets. Structural coding can also be useful for data from open-ended survey questions. This data may initially be difficult to code as they lack the set structure of other forms of data, such as an interview with a strict closed set of questions to be answered. In this case, it would be useful to code sections of data that answer certain questions, such as who, what, where, and how. Method number five, values coding. Last but not least, values-based coding involves coding excerpts that relate to the participant's worldviews. Typically, this type of coding focuses on excerpts that provide insight regarding the values, attitudes, and beliefs of the participants. In practical terms, this means you'd be looking for instances where your participants say things like, I feel, I think that, I need, and it's important that, as these sorts of statements often provide insight into their values, attitudes, and beliefs. Values coding is therefore very useful when your research aims and research questions seek to explore cultural values and interpersonal experiences and actions, or when you're looking to learn about the human experience. All right, so we've looked at five popular methods that can be used in the initial coding stage. As I mentioned, this is not a comprehensive list, so if none of these sound relevant to your project, be sure to look up alternative coding methods to find the right fit for your research aims. The five methods we've discussed allow you to arrange your data so that it's easier to navigate during the next stage, line-by-line coding. While these methods can all be used individually, it's important to know that it's possible, and quite often beneficial, to combine them. For example, when conducting initial coding with interview data, you could begin by using structural coding to indicate who speaks when. Then, as a next step, you could apply descriptive coding so that you can navigate to and between conversation topics easily. As with all design choices, the right method or combination of methods depends on your research aims and research questions, so think carefully about what you're trying to achieve with your research. Then, select the method or methods that make sense in light of that. So, to recap, the aim of initial coding is to understand and familiarize yourself with your data, to develop an initial code set, if you're taking an inductive approach, and to take the first shot at coding your data. Once that's done, you can move on to the next stage, line-by-line coding. Let's do it. Line-by-line coding is pretty much exactly what it sounds like, reviewing your data line-by-line, digging deeper, refining your codes, and assigning additional codes to each line. With line-by-line coding, the objective is to pay close attention to your data, to refine and expand upon your coding, especially when it comes to adopting an inductive approach. For example, if you have a discussion of beverages and you previously just coded this as beverages, you could now go deeper and code more specifically, such as coffee, tea, and orange juice. The aim here is to scratch below the surface. This is the time to get detailed and specific so that you can capture as much richness from the data as possible. In the line-by-line coding process, it's useful to code as much data as possible, even if you don't think you're going to use it. As you go through this process, your coding will become more thorough and detailed, and you'll have a much better understanding of your data as a result of this. This will be incredibly valuable in the analysis phase, so don't cut corners here. Take your time to work through your data line-by-line and apply your mind to see how you refine your coding as much as possible. Keep in mind that coding is an iterative process, which means that you'll move back and forth between interviews or documents to apply the codes consistently throughout your data set. Be careful to clearly define each code and update previously coded excerpts if you adjust or update the definition of any code, or if you split any code into narrower codes. Line-by-line coding takes time, so don't rush it. Be patient and work through your data meticulously to ensure you develop a high-quality code set. Stage three, moving from coding to analysis. Once you've completed your initial and line-by-line coding, the next step is to start your actual qualitative analysis. Of course, the coding process itself will get you in analysis mode, and you'll probably already have some insights and ideas as a result of it, so you should always keep notes of your thoughts as you work through the coding process. When it comes to qualitative data analysis, there are many different methods you can use, including content analysis, thematic analysis, and discourse analysis. The analysis method you adopt will depend heavily on your research aims and research questions. We cover qualitative analysis methods on the Grad Coach blog, so we're not going to go down that rabbit hole here, but we'll discuss the important first steps that build the bridge from qualitative coding to qualitative analysis. So, how do you get started with your analysis? Well, each analysis will be different, but it's useful to ask yourself the following more general questions to get the wheels turning. What actions and interactions are shown in the data? What are the aims of these interactions and excerpts? How do participants interpret what is happening, and how do they speak about it? What does their language reveal? What are the assumptions made by the participants? What are the participants doing? Why do I want to learn about this? What am I trying to find out? As with initial coding and line-by-line coding, your qualitative analysis can follow certain steps. The first two steps will typically be code categorization and theme identification. Let's look at these two steps. Code categorization, which is the first step, is simply the process of reviewing everything you've coded and then creating categories that can be used to guide your future analysis. In other words, it's about bundling similar or related codes into categories to help organize your data effectively. Let's look at a practical example. If you were discussing different types of animals, your codes may include dogs, llamas, and lions. In the process of code categorization, you could label, in other words, categorize these three animals as mammals, whereas you could categorize flies, crickets, and beetles as insects. By creating these code categories, you will be making your data more organized, as well as enriching it so that you can see new connections between different groups of codes. Once you've categorized your codes, you can move on to the next step, which is to identify the themes in your data. Let's look at the theme identification step. From the coding and categorization processes, you'll naturally start noticing themes. Therefore, the next logical step is to identify and clearly articulate the themes in your data set. When you determine themes, you'll take what you've learned from the coding and categorization stages and synthesize it to develop themes. This is the part of the analysis process where you'll begin to draw meaning from your data and produce a narrative. The nature of this narrative will, of course, depend on your research aims, your research questions, and the analysis method you've chosen. For example, content analysis or thematic analysis. So, keep these factors front of mind as you scan for themes, as they'll help you stay aligned with the big picture. All right, now that we've covered both the what and the how of qualitative coding, I want to quickly share some general tips and suggestions to help you optimize your coding process. Let's rapid fire. One, before you begin coding, plan out the steps you'll take and the coding approach and method or methods you'll follow to avoid inconsistencies. Two, when adopting a deductive approach, it's best to use a codebook with detailed descriptions of each code right from the start of the coding process. This will ensure that you apply codes consistently based on their descriptions and will help you keep your work organized. Three, whether you adopt an inductive or deductive approach, keep track of the meanings of your codes and remember to revisit these as you go along. Four, while coding, keep your research aims, research questions, coding methods, and analysis method front of mind. This will help you to avoid directional drift, which happens when coding is not kept consistent. Five, if you're working in a research team with multiple coders, make sure that everyone has been trained and clearly understands how codes need to be assigned. If multiple coders are pulling in even slightly different directions, you will end up with a mess that needs to be redone. You don't want that. So keep these five tips in mind and you'll be on the fast track to coding success. And there you have it, qualitative coding in a nutshell. Remember, as with every design choice in your dissertation, thesis, or research project, your research aims and research questions will have a major influence on how you approach the coding. So keep these two elements front of mind every step of the way and make sure your coding approach and methods align well. If you enjoyed the video, hit the like button and leave a comment if you have any questions. Also, be sure to subscribe to the channel for more research-related content. If you need a helping hand with your qualitative coding or any part of your research project, remember to check out our private coaching service where we work with you on a one-on-one basis, chapter by chapter, to help you craft a winning piece of research. If that sounds interesting to you, book a free consultation with a friendly coach at gradcoach.com. As always, I'll include a link below. That's all for this episode of Grad Coach TV. Until next time, good luck.

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Home > ETD > Doctoral > 5963

Doctoral Dissertations and Projects

Cultivating multicultural christian youth ministry team leaders through covenant relationships with youth in kc and stl metro area churches.

Christopher D. Edin , Liberty University Follow

Rawlings School of Divinity

Doctor of Education in Christian Leadership (EdD)

Rob Van Engen

Multiculturalism, Competencies, Satisfactory, Youth Ministry Leaders, Paid Youth Leaders, Volunteer Youth Leaders, Adolescent Youth, Youth Ministry Attendees, Youth Fleeing Church

Disciplines

Christianity | Leadership Studies

Recommended Citation

Edin, Christopher D., "Cultivating Multicultural Christian Youth Ministry Team Leaders Through Covenant Relationships With Youth in KC and STL Metro Area Churches" (2024). Doctoral Dissertations and Projects . 5963. https://digitalcommons.liberty.edu/doctoral/5963

One significant challenge for today’s Christian churches involves bridging the gap between youth involvement in church after high school graduation and moving on to college (Owens, 2014). Owens (2014) asserts that today’s adolescents experience parental and church support during high school, but once they head off to college, they leave that support and stability at home. Students leave the church for many reasons. This study proposes that one significant reason is that Christian churches do not educate youth ministry team leaders on multiculturalism. This research explored satisfactory multicultural competencies necessary for youth ministry leaders to disciple youth by asking adult youth ministry leaders and adolescent youth ministry attendees to respond to questionnaires, essays, and surveys to develop essential satisfactory multicultural competencies. This study drew theoretical guidance from an explanatory sequential mixed-methods theory, commencing with a quantitative longitudinal study using closed-ended questionnaires and concluding with qualitative essays and surveys to enhance the quantitative findings. This mixed-methods research describes the satisfactory multicultural competencies essential to empower Christian youth ministry leaders to reach the multicultural youth within Kansas City and St. Louis metro area churches. Kite (2015) reports that multicultural competencies in education require valuing students’ racial diversity and racial differences. Awareness of cultural biases and virtues, learning to view others' worlds, and developing culturally appropriate interpersonal skills legitimize cultural competence. Discussing satisfactory multicultural competence helps transfer these traits from one to another (Kite, 2015).

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Older people’s experience and related factors while receiving home-based long-term care services: a qualitative study

Arūnė norvilaitė.

1 Department of Nursing, Lithuanian University of Health Sciences, Kaunas, Lithuania

Jamesetta A. Newland

2 Rory Meyers College of Nursing, New York University, New York, USA

Aurelija Blaževičienė

Associated data.

The datasets used and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable reques.

Home-based care may cover anything from 24-hour support for people with a disability, to short-term post-discharge care, or to periodic assistance with simple tasks such as domestic aid for frail older people. The process can be complex and time-consuming and requires coordination between the individual, their family caregivers, and healthcare providers. Receiving care at home can also lead to social isolation as older people may have limited opportunities for social interaction. This study aimed to investigate older people’s experience and related factors while receiving home-based long-term care services.

A qualitative study was used. Face-to-face individual interviews were conducted with people who were receiving nursing care in their homes ( N  = 17) and analyzed through thematic analysis.

Analysis of interview data resulted in the identification of three major themes that captured participants’ personal experiences regarding long-term care in the home: (1) Challenges faced by older people receiving long-term care at home; (2) The impact of home care services on people’s social well-being; and (3) Older people’s contradictory emotions regarding care delivery.

Conclusions

Findings of the study revealed that the most important and challenging factors in home care from the perspective of older people were social well-being, religious needs, and physical needs. They considered the nurses who provided these services as family members and the most significant helpers in their daily activities. Participants expressed a desire for more services in the future.

Introduction

Aging and the rapid increase in the number of older people is a global problem driven by low birth rates and rising life expectancy. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that by the year 2050 the global population of individuals aged 60 years and above will reach a staggering two billion. Notably, about 80% of this older population is expected to reside in developing countries [ 1 , 2 ]. These structural changes are increasing the need for long-term care in people’s homes. Long-term care services at home are generally more convenient and cost-effective than care provided in healthcare institutions, and they can be as effective [ 3 , 4 ]. Home care reduces hospital admissions that are financially more costly than home care. And the effectiveness of services can be measured by quality of life, which is considered a main evaluation criterion [ 4 ].

The WHO defines home-based care as “any form of care given to ill people in their homes, including physical, psychosocial and palliative activities” [ 5 ]. Home-based care may cover anything from 24-hour support for adults with a disability, to short-term post-discharge care, or to periodic assistance with simple tasks such as domestic aid for frail older people [ 6 ]. Receiving nursing care at home can provide older people with a greater sense of independence and comfort in a familiar environment; however, this arrangement can also present unique challenges. Some challenges include older people’s desire for independence, which can be influenced by their health conditions, frailty, and the need for assistance with limited activities of daily living. Additionally, in an effort to ensure comfort and independence, people often face isolation, losing social contacts as they remain in their own homes. Family members often provide most of the care for older people receiving care at home which can be emotionally and physically challenging, especially if they have other responsibilities such as work or caring for their own families [ 7 ]. Many older individuals receiving long-term care at home have one or more chronic health issues. Therefore, informal caregivers providing care at home should be well-prepared to manage these conditions. It is also important for relatives to be aware of respite care or support services that can ease the burden on family caregivers [ 8 ]. The process can be complex and time-consuming and requires coordination between the individual, their family caregivers, and healthcare providers [ 9 – 11 ]. Older people receiving care at home may be at risk for falls or other accidents due to physical limitations or cognitive impairment. Ensuring that the home environment is safe and accessible can help prevent accidents and promote independence [ 12 ].

These challenges are therefore unique, as they do not arise in long-term care settings because there are staff and other people around all the time, unlike with home care [ 7 ].

To address these challenges, it is important to develop a comprehensive care plan to meet the unique needs of older people and family caregivers as well [ 13 ]. Overall, providing high-quality, person-centered care can help older people receiving long-term care at home maintain their independence and quality of life. High-quality care follows a holistic approach, ensuring the basic needs of the person, such as psychological and physical needs, dignity, and autonomy [ 13 ]. Patient-centered care emphasizes the involvement of the individual, both in terms of the information provided and in decision-making [ 14 ]. Ensuring that these concepts are incorporated in the care will help to preserve a person’s autonomypermit them to be involved in their care and make choices, which engenders an improved quality of life.

At the beginning of 2020 there were 556,000 (19.9%) older people aged 65 years and over in Lithuania. According to the average growth forecast by the Statistical Office of the European Union, the proportion of older people in Lithuania is expected to rise to 672,000 by 2050, an increase of more than 17%. Demographic changes are closely linked to the increase in healthcare and long-term care services [ 15 , 16 ]. In Lithuania, the long-term care network is underdeveloped, mainly based on institutional care and informal care, with fragmented home-based services in the social and health sectors that are inaccessible to a large portion of the population. In 2014, 47% of older people in need of long-term care had not received services [ 17 ]. Although the implementation of outpatient home nursing services in Lithuania started as early as 2008 on the basis of an order issued by the Minister of Health of the Republic of Lithuania, home care services have been actively implemented only since 2021. According to the 2021 Nursing and Social Services for the Older People Assessment Report, outpatient home care services were 10 times less resource-intensive than inpatient nursing services in Lithuania [ 18 ]. Although the tendency for home care services to be provided by informal caregivers still exists, current directions have been moving more towards services being provided by the healthcare professional team. However, assessment of the attitudes of not only service providers but also the attitudes of people towards these services is important.

For several reasons, it is important to assess and monitor home care services from the perspectives of both providers and recipients. Firstly, the services are new, having been launched in Lithuania in 2021, and are still evolving in terms of content and organization. Secondly, it is crucial to understand and ensure that the needs of the people receiving the services are identified and met so that services can be adapted accordingly. Thirdly, providers themselves need to contribute to the transformation of the national healthcare system.

The aim of this study was to investigate the older people’s experience and related factors while receiving home-based long-term care services.

To achieve this goal, the following research questions were posed:

What is the experience of receiving home-based long-term care as an older people?

What factors contribute to the acceptability and high quality of these services?

Study design

Our research team aims to comprehensively identify the experiences and personal insights of the health-care- and social-care-related needs of Lithuania based older adults who receiving home care services. Furthermore, we also seek to identify means of optimizing the use of available home health care resources in a manner that improves such persons’ wellbeing.

The scope of the present paper concerns comprehensive in-depth research into the personal experiences of older people who are receiving home care service, as well as the impact these new services on certain aspects of their own lives.

Our team of researchers chose a qualitative research approach in which older people‘s experiences were investigated as a phenomenon through face-to-face individual interviews to obtain a more in-depth understanding of the experiences and personal insights of the participants. Individual interviews are commonly used in healthcare research as a suitable way to elicit rich data about a participant’s experience. Individual interviews also provide an opportunity to obtain evidence that healthcare professionals can employ to develop improved healthcare practices. The study was performed in the second-largest city Kaunas in Lithuania; Kaunas is located in the center of the country and has socioeconomic indicators that are similar to the national averages.

The recommendations for qualitative research [ 19 ] and the COREQ checklist in the results reporting [ 20 ].

Participants

The study invited older individuals receiving long-term care at home to participate. To recruit these participants, we focused on a large family medicine clinic in Kaunas City, which serves approximately two-thirds of the city’s population. We identified suitable people from these clinics who met the inclusion criteria. Inclusion criteria were:

• A person must receive long-term care services at home.
• A person has a low, medium, or high nursing need according to the Nursing Needs Assessment Questionnaire [ 21 ]. The procedure for identifying the need for outpatient home care services was determined on a scale: up to 15 points – no need for outpatient home care services; 15 to 29 points – low need for outpatient home care services; 30 to 44 points – medium need for outpatient home care services; 45 points or more – high need for outpatient home care services. The maximum possible score was 93 points.
• A person must be in the older age group (65 years and over).
• Exclusion criteria were people undergoing active medical treatment, such as chemotherapy, surgical interventions, or other; people at an institutional caring home; and people receiving palliative care.

As the first step, we contacted community nurses and nurse practitioners to inform them about our study. We then asked them to identify eligible people with low to medium nursing care needs.

Seventeen individuals with low to medium nursing care needs participated in the study. It was noted that individuals with high nursing care needs were unable to participate.

Data collection

The primary researcher conducted the interviews. Based on the analysis of the limited research available in the field of home care and long-term care at home—since many countries are still in the process of implementing these services—the research questions were formulated [ 22 – 24 ].

Individual interviews require careful consideration of the interview environment. The interviewer created a non-threatening atmosphere by emphasizing that all ideas were valued and respected while maintaining privacy, and thus, the interviews were carried out in the participants’ own homes. Interviews were conducted using a semi-structured interview guide with the following questions:

• What are older people’s experience of receiving nursing care at home?
• What challenges do older people face in accessing nursing care services at home?
• What emotions do older people experience while receiving nursing care at home?

The interviews took place between June and August 2022. Interviews were digitally recorded and transcribed verbatim by a professional transcription service. The interviewer also recorded field notes during the participant interviews to document nonverbal behaviors and notable aspects of the home environment.

Data analysis

After the individual interview had been completed the audio recordings were transcribed verbatim. Two independent researchers systematically reviewed the entire dataset and coded the data by selecting the closest coding terms for the words used by the participants.

Later, each researcher’s coded transcripts were compared with the others, and this showed that the majority of the codes were similar. Any coding differences that were found were resolved through securing common consent among the researchers.

Meaningful words and key phrases were independently assigned codes by two members of the research team and then compared for agreement. Codes were then sorted and organized into themes. Atlas.ti version 9 was employed to store and facilitate data organization, coding, and retrieval [ 25 ].

The data analysis was based on the inductive approach and the thematic analysis strategy with the aim of effectively identifying and summarizing the problems experienced by the participants [ 26 ].

Braun and Clarke’s thematic analysis method is an iterative process consisting of six steps: (1) becoming familiar with the data, (2) generating codes, (3) generating themes, (4) reviewing themes, (5) defining and naming themes, and (6) locating exemplars [ 26 , 27 ].

Research ethics

Participants were informed of the purpose and the course of the study, risks and benefits, as well as their rights to terminate their participation at any time without denial of customary services. Participants then signed an informed consent. Ethical permission was granted by the Bioethics Centre of Lithuanian University of Health Sciences (authorization number BEC-ISP(M)-104).

There were 17 participants in the study. The majority were female ( n  = 14). The youngest person was 65 years old and the oldest was 97 years old. The distribution of people by age, gender, need for nursing care, length of time receiving home care services, and cohabitation is shown in Table  1 .

People’s sociodemographic characteristics

Within this study three main themes with associated subthemes emerged: 1 ) Challenges faced by older people receiving long-term care at home; (2) The impact of home care services on people’s social well-being , and (3) Older people’s contradictory emotions regarding care delivery (Table  2 ).

Themes and subthemes

Theme: challenges faced by older people receiving long-term care at home

The first theme that emerged from the data pertains to participants’ perspectives on the challenges faced while receiving long-term care at home. Three interrelated themes emerged from the data, illustrating that nursing care at home is a multi-dimensional, challenging, and holistic process that must address the physical (state of health), social (social support network), and psychological (emotional support) needs of the older people.

Chronic health conditions require ongoing management, which can be a complex and time-consuming process that requires coordination between the individual, family caregivers, and healthcare providers.

All people in the study faced a major challenge when it came to their health – physical disability, which was usually accompanied by pain:

“The biggest challenge for me is the back pain. Morally , it also has an impact , because lying down for so long is no joke. It’s been a year since I’ve been bedridden.” P10 .

Participants were most affected by the idea that they could not walk at all, and they were always at home. For some, this caused anger, and a feeling of inferiority; and for others, they saw themselves as a lying vegetable:

“For me , the thing that makes life most difficult is the difficulty of moving around. It’s hard for me that I can’t go anywhere anymore , that I must sit on the sofa at home all the time.” P14 .

In addition to the physical suffering, many people felt guilty that their relatives had to take care of them; that they were a burden:

“I’m getting used to it , but it’s hard that I have to be a burden to others.” P6 .

Respondents also emphasized feelings of loneliness and the weakening or complete loss of social ties:

“Lonely like a wolf , from window to window and that’s it. This loneliness is worse than illness…” P17 .

Theme: the impact of home care services on people’s social well-being

The second theme related to contextual factors associated with people’s social well-being. Within this theme there were four subthemes identified: Religiosity/Spirituality, Autonomy, Communication, and New technologies.

In Lithuania, the number of religious believers is over 80%, with the majority being Catholics. Therefore, participants were asked if religiosity was a significant factor for people receiving home care and how they expressed it. The participants reported an increased need for religiosity and a search for strength in faith as a positive result to home care services:

“I am a very religious person; I am protected by God. I used to go to the church all the time , but now I only pray at home. There are a lot of things you can’t solve by yourself. And when you ask for it , it seems to suddenly happen , it all works out.” P8 .

They were also pleased that home care allowed them to remain independent and stay in their own homes for as long as possible, rather than having to go to the hospital:

“Just stay at home , my opinion of hospices is very bad. I don’t want to; I really don’t want to go anywhere.” P2 .

Nursing care at home provided people with increased social support, as nurses were able to develop close relationships with people and their families. This led to feelings of connection and belonging. Social well-being refers to the extent to which a person feels connected to others, has a sense of belonging and feels supported by their community [ 25 ].

The application of new technologies (home video cameras, panic buttons, global positioning system (GPS) devices) in home care had both positive and negative impacts on the social well-being of the people.

On the positive side, participants said that the technology helped them call for help more quickly in the event of an emergency:

“It’s obviously a good thing. Because what am I afraid of , if I ever get sick , my husband wouldn’t even be able to call an ambulance.” P13 .

However, people also identified certain inconveniences caused by these technologies:

“If I had to , I wouldn’t really want to , because I have a toilet seat right next to my bed. It would make me uncomfortable with the cameras , maybe I don’t need them.” P4 .

Theme: older people’s contradictory emotions regarding home care delivery

The third theme related to people’s contradictory emotions regarding receiving long-term care at home. Within this theme four subthemes were identified: changes in their own lives, expectations of service providers, empowerment to make their own decisions, and involvement of others in home care.

The appearance of home care services made a significant difference to people’s lives and quality of life. All participants shared positive experiences. They were happy that various manipulations and tests could be carried out at home and that they no longer needed to go to the clinic:

“… I am happy , I just didn’t expect such a thing , I didn’t even know it was possible.” P2 .

Participants had even higher expectations of home care services, such as more visits, specific care, mobility equipment, and transportation services:

“And if there was a service to take you to doctors’ appointments when you need it , that would be great.” P5 .

In order to have an equal relationship between a person and health professional, it was important to treat people as autonomous and to build a reciprocal relationship and empower them to make their own health decisions. Participants felt they had a voice in their care and were able to make decisions:

“I feel very free about this , I have no problem with it , I always discuss the condition with the doctors and nurses together.” P2 .

When looking into the experiences of older people in home care, the role taken by relatives, professionals, or neighbors was important. Participants identified that it was teamwork and that each person was responsible for different areas:

“My family helps me because they make me meals , provide me with medicines and take care of all kinds of ailments. But I really appreciate your service , I don’t know what it would be like without physiotherapy and when you come to take tests. I think it’s like a teamwork here.” P6 .

The present study examining older people who received long-term care in the home revealed a variety of experiences and challenges, differing attitudes attitudes of the impact of home care on social well-being, and contradicting emotions. Nursing care for older people in their homes is an important aspect of health car, as it helps maintain their autonomy/independence, dignity, and quality of life [ 26 ]. Research has shown that people want to stay at home to recover after various injuries or other serious illnesses [ 27 , 28 ]. Therefore, home health care can be beneficial because it keeps people exactly where they want to be – at home and with their families. A study by researchers in the United States found that people who received care at home were less likely to be hospitalized or taken to the emergency room [ 29 ]. The research findings from a scientist in Iran indicated that the quality of life for older individuals receiving long-term care at home and living with their families was significantly higher than that of residents in nursing homes [ 30 ].

Challenges receiving home care

Findings from this study indicate that older people receiving nursing care in their homes faced challenges, especially in daily living assistance. When they experienced a reduced quality of life because they needed help in activities of daily living such as bathing, dressing, grooming, and toileting; their situation made them feel uncomfortable and more aware of their decreasing autonomy. The challenges that emerged most prominently were physical, social, and psychological factors. This was also relevant in studies conducted by other authors. People experienced anxiety due to physical challenges when they were unable to perform tasks that were once routine and easy [ 31 , 32 ].

Social wellbeing of the older people receiving home care

As many older people become frail and in need of care, it is likely that health professionals will become increasingly important to them at times when existential problems arise [ 33 – 35 ]. However, research showed that healthcare professionals struggled to meet people’s existential needs [ 35 , 36 ]. Caregiving could have significant implications on the social well-being of individuals. In this study, end-of-life issues, fear of suffering and death, and the need for religiosity were dominant in terms of people’s existential needs.

Social well-being is also directly linked to loneliness. A quantitative study by Norwegian researchers found that loneliness was more common among those in poorer physical health, those who felt helpless, those who needed help with daily activities, and those who were dissatisfied with life. Women and people who had no relatives were also more likely to feel lonely [ 36 ]. Our study showed that the strength of social ties and the loneliness of people depended strongly on their marital status, favorite activities, and their own attitudes. For the social well-being of the individual, it was important that the person’s existential needs were met; care was provided while preserving the person’s dignity and autonomy [ 37 ], no matter where a person received services, in the hospital or in their home. Home nursing services were not only about nursing procedure but also about social interaction, which was very important for people, especially those who were lonely. People who participated in the interview said they appreciated the opportunity to call for visiting nurses and talk, complain, and discuss different issues. People felt safer and more comfortable when they were able to complain to someone directly.

The quality of life for people can also be improved by incorporating new technologies into the home care process. Virtual tools like remote personal monitoring devices and telehealth, which are being used to supplement the in-home visits people receive from home health staff, yielded a positive experience for older people [ 38 ]. Although participants in our study had some misgivings about the use of new technologies in care, they agreed that it would help them to deal with unplanned situations such as calling the ambulance in case of an emergency case or just calling the nurse. Religion and spirituality were important aspects for older adults when it came to psychological and social well-being. It is believed in god that a higher level of religiosity might be associated with lower instances of depression and greater life satisfaction [ 39 ].

Older people’s participation in the process

People’s expectations of health care continue to rise, which needs to be properly managed to improve outcomes and reduce liability. Understanding people’s expectations may increase their level of satisfaction with care and it makes it easier for health professionals to provide person-centered care [ 40 ]. Receiving medical care at home eliminated many of the transportation barriers associated with healthcare access. And while most people appreciated convenient care access, it was particularly beneficial for sick or injured people who needed care. People who used apps that enabled them to access health care and rehabilitation found that the technology was very convenient because they did not have to go to a medical institution [ 41 , 42 ]. Participants in this study were very positive about nursing and other medical services they received at home. People mentioned that home care service was excellent; the staff came and drew blood as needed and performed other required procedures. Therefore, findings revealed that providing services at home was convenient and saved time for family members.

The goal of home health care is to help people improve, regain their independence, and become as self-sufficient as possible. To best serve and support people, home health clinicians are advised to see a person as a partner in care with great influence on how and when the care is delivered. Home care services should be tailored according to patient-centered factors such as basic needs, values, and beliefs [ 14 , 43 ]. Patient-centered care allows health care proffesionals to treat each individual as unique, establishing warm relationships, which enables the provision of high-quality services [ 36 ].

Strengths and limitations

In Lithuania, the home-based long-term care system is divided between health and social services, each with its own eligibility conditions, needs assessment criteria, and procedures. This division leads to unmet needs for some individuals and a duplication of services for others. To better address the needs of older people, it is essential to investigate them needs, expectations and obstacles for receiving service.

The main strength of this study was its ability to capture data on the implementation of new home-based long-term care services in Lithuania and help identify relevant issues. However, the study also has several limitations. Firstly, since home-based long-term care services in Lithuania are new, there were no established benchmarks to compare aspects such as service content, participant engagement, and needs. Secondly, participants were unfamiliar with assessing and articulating their needs within this context, potentially resulting in less accurate responses. Lastly, there may have been some influence from the researchers during the interviews.

Our research provides key insights into the demand, challenges, and desires of older people for home-based long-term care in Lithuania. Firstly, it highlights that older individuals receiving such care often face challenges like deteriorating health conditions and loss of independence, alongside weakening or lack of social relationships. As a result, they need emotional support, which can be difficult to provide due to social isolation.

The study also explores the impact of home care services on individuals’ social well-being, noting how these services can support older adults through religiosity/spirituality, autonomy, communication, and new technologies. Additionally, it addresses the conflicting emotions older people may have about the delivery of care.

The findings from this study provide a foundation for developing evidence-based guidelines for home-based long-term care.

Acknowledgements

We extend our gratitude to all patients who generously participated in the study and shared their valuable insights, thereby contributing to the enhancement of services.

Abbreviations

Author contributions

AN and AB made the design of the work, created methodology. AN carried out data collection, analysis and interpretation, prepared original draft. AB reviewed and edited the first draft. JN substantively revised and edited the work. All authors have made substantial contributions to the conception of the work and approved the final manuscript.

The authors declare there was no funding associated with the work featured in this article.

Data availability

Declarations.

Participants were informed of the purpose and the course of the study, risks and benefits, as well as their rights to terminate their participation at any time without denial of customary services. Participants then signed an informed consent. Ethical permission was granted by the Bioethics Centre of Lithuanian University of Health Sciences (authorization number ( BEC-ISP(M)-104).

Not applicable.

The author AB declares that has competing interests – is the Editorial Team Member. Other authors declare that they have no competing interests.

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