child labour in fashion industry case study

• TeachableMoment

Are Sweatshops and Child Labor Abroad Used to Make the Clothes We Wear?

This lesson includes two readings on the issue of sweatshops and child labor abroad, each with questions for class discussion.

• Consumerism
• Consumer Issues

To the Teacher

Over the last several decades, with the increasing integration of the global economy, more and more of our clothing has come from factories abroad. At the same time, social movements have expressed concern that some of these clothes are being made in sweatshops with exploitative labor conditions. In some cases, our clothing may be produced with the use of child labor. In recent years, several popular clothing brands have embraced the practice of “fast fashion,” a style of production where new clothes are produced in rapid response to the latest trends then sold at low prices. The business model, however, can place high demands on workers while pushing factories to find cheaper and cheaper forms of labor, leading to abusive conditions.

This lesson includes two readings on the issue of sweatshops and child labor abroad, each with questions for class discussion. The first reading discusses the persistence of child labor in the garment industry supply chain. It also covers some charges against “fast fashion” brands accused of exploiting workers. The second reading documents the efforts of students in the 1990s to oppose their colleges’ sale of sweatshops clothing, and it draws lessons for young people today. Questions for discussion follow each reading.

Photo by Artem Beliaikin on Unsplash

Reading one: “fast fashion,” sweatshops, and child labor abroad.

Take a moment to look at the tags on your clothing. What country were your clothes made in? What do you know about the labor conditions there?

Over the last several decades, with the increasing integration of the global economy, more and more of our clothing has come from factories abroad. At the same time, social movements have expressed concern that some of these clothes are being made in sweatshops with exploitative labor conditions. In some cases, our clothing may be produced with the use of child labor.

In recent years, several popular clothing brands have embraced the practice of “fast fashion,” a style of production where new clothes are produced in rapid response to the latest trends then sold at low prices. The business model, however, can place high demands on workers while pushing factories to find cheaper and cheaper forms of labor, leading to abusive conditions.

Workers’ rights advocates point out that child labor and sweatshops are not merely foreign problems; they exist in the United States as well. At the same time, countries with weaker labor laws and workers’ protections create opportunities for abuse. In a January 2015 article for The Guardian, written in collaboration with the United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund (UNICEF), investigative journalist Josephine Moulds discussed the prevalence of child labor in the garment industry supply chain globally, as well as the labor pressures generated by “fast fashion.” Moulds wrote:  

Child labour is forbidden by law in most countries but continues to be rife in some of the poorest parts of the world. The situation is improving. ILO estimates suggest child labour declined by 30% between 2000 and 2012, but still 11% of the world’s children are in situations that deprive them of their right to go to school without interference from work. Many of these child labourers work within the fashion supply chain, making the textiles and garments to satisfy the demand of consumers in Europe, the US, and beyond. Fast fashion has engendered a race to the bottom, pushing companies to find ever-cheaper sources of labour. That cheap labour is freely available in many of the countries where textile and garment production takes place. Sofie Ovaa, global campaign coordinator of Stop Child Labour, says: “There are many girls in countries like India and Bangladesh, who are willing to work for very low prices and are easily brought into these industries under false promises of earning decent wages.” A recent report by the Centre for Research on Multinational Corporations (SOMO), and the India Committee of the Netherlands (ICN) revealed that recruiters in southern India convince parents in impoverished rural areas to send their daughters to spinning mills with promises of a well-paid job, comfortable accommodation, three nutritious meals a day and opportunities for training and schooling, as well as a lump sum payment at the end of three years. Their field research shows that “in reality, they are working under appalling conditions that amount to modern day slavery and the worst forms of child labour…” Child labour is a particular issue for fashion because much of the supply chain requires low-skilled labour and some tasks are even better suited to children than adults. In cotton picking, employers prefer to hire children for their small fingers, which do not damage the crop.   [ https://labs.theguardian.com/unicef-child-labour/ ]

According to Moulds, roughly 170 million children around the world were engaged in child labor, which the United Nations defines as “work for which the child is either too young – work done below the required minimum age – or work which, because of its detrimental nature or conditions, is altogether considered unacceptable for children and is prohibited.” Unlike the UN’s definition on child labor, there is no single agreed-upon definition for sweatshops. However, the Worker Rights Consortium (WRC), a labor rights monitoring organization, includes in its essential employment standards for all workplaces the mandate that they prevent child labor, maintain a maximum work week of 48 hours, provide a day off every week, and offer a livable wage.

While not necessarily accused specifically of using child labor, a variety of fast fashion brands have been charged with having their clothing produced under exploitative conditions. In a 2022 article for Business Insider, business reporter Sarah Jackson summarized the results of an undercover investigation on the working conditions in the supply chain of the fast fashion brand Shein. Jackson wrote:  

Fast-fashion company Shein sells clothes at dirt-cheap prices, and a new undercover investigation shows the human cost of maintaining that business model. Workers at factories in China that supply clothes to Shein frequently work up to 18 hours a day with no weekends and just one day off per month, according to an undercover investigation from Channel 4 and The i newspaper in the UK. The news organizations say a woman using a fake name got a job inside two factories and secretly filmed what she saw as she worked there…. "There's no such thing as Sundays here," said one worker shown in the footage, who said they work seven days a week. At one of the factories, workers get a base salary of 4,000 yuan per month — the equivalent of roughly $556 — to make at least 500 pieces of clothing per day, but their first month's pay is withheld from them, per the investigation. Many of these workers toil long hours to earn a commission of 0.14 yuan, or just two cents, per item. [ https://www.businessinsider.com/shein-factory-workers-18-hour-shifts-paid-low-wages-report-2022-10?eType=EmailBlastContent&eId=559da6e7-a3a2-43a7-8779-dc041b94364a ]

Shein is not the only company accused of exploiting working people abroad to produce their garments. A January 2023 study published by Aberdeen University and the advocacy group Transform Trade found that “Major international fashion brands, including Zara, H&M and GAP, are exploiting Bangladesh garment industry workers, with some of them involved in unfair practices and paying the suppliers below the cost of production.”

Between children working in the fashion supply chain and other exploitative conditions documented at garment factories, there is reason to be concerned about whether the clothing we wear has been fairly made. Such concerns have given rise to activist campaigns to support garment workers globally.  

For Discussion:

• How much of the material in this reading was new to you, and how much was already familiar? Do you have any questions about what you read?
• According to the reading, how many children are estimated to be engaged in child labor around the world? What makes child labor a particular issue for the fashion industry?
• What would be your response if you learned that clothing you owned was made in sweatshop conditions?
• What responsibility do you think fashion companies have for ensuring that their clothes are not made under such exploitative conditions?
• What do you think are some things we can do to help improve conditions for workers laboring in garment factories or cotton farming abroad?

Reading Two: The Anti-Sweatshop Movement, From the 1990s to Today

While the rise of “globalization” in recent decades has raised concerns about modern-day sweatshops, it has also given rise to international efforts to support workers in the garment industry. In the 1990s, one group drawing attention to this issue was made up of college students pushing their universities to institute fair labor standards for the clothes that these institutions sold on their campuses.

In a 2001 article for The American Prospect, urban and environmental policy professor Peter Dreier detailed the rise of the anti-sweatshop movement on college campuses across the country, in particular highlighting the first campaign to arise at Duke University. Dreier wrote:  

The campus movement began in the fall of 1997 at Duke when a group called Students Against Sweatshops persuaded the university to require manufacturers of items with the Duke label to sign a pledge that they would not use sweatshop labor. Duke has 700 licensees (including Nike and other major labels) that make apparel at hundreds of plants in the U.S. and in more than 10 other countries, generating almost $25 million annually in sales. Following months of negotiations, in March 1998 Duke President Nannerl Keohane and the student activists jointly announced a detailed "code of conduct" that bars Duke licensees from using child labor, requires them to maintain safe workplaces, to pay the minimum wage, to recognize the right of workers to unionize, to disclose the locations of all factories making products with Duke's name, and to allow visits by independent monitors to inspect the factories. ​​The Duke victory quickly inspired students on other campuses. The level of activity on campuses accelerated, with students finding creative ways to dramatize the issue. At Yale, student activists staged a "knit-in" to draw attention to sweatshop abuses. At Holy Cross and the University of California at Santa Barbara, students sponsored mock fashion shows where they discussed the working conditions under which the garments were manufactured. Duke students published a coloring book explaining how (and where) the campus mascot, the Blue Devil, is stitched onto clothing by workers in sweatshops. Activists at the University of Wisconsin infiltrated a homecoming parade and, dressed like sweatshop workers in Indonesia, carried a giant Reebok shoe. They also held a press conference in front of the chancellor's office and presented him with an oversized check for 16 cents-the hourly wage paid to workers in China making Nike athletic shoes. At Georgetown, Wisconsin, Michigan, Arizona, and Duke, students occupied administration buildings to pressure their institutions to adopt (or, in Duke's case, strengthen) anti-sweatshop codes.   [ https://prospect.org/education/campus-anti-sweatshop-movement/ ]

Many of these campus groups came together to form the United Students Against Sweatshops (USAS) in the summer of 1998. Since its founding, USAS and the broader anti-sweatshop movement have raised awareness around sweatshops, negotiated policy changes within universities and corporations, and helped establish the Workers’ Rights Consortium to monitor labor conditions in factories around the world. The organization remains active on college campuses today.  

USAS recently launched a campaign accusing Nike of refusing to pay wages to a factory of workers in Thailand during the pandemic and calling on universities to end their contracts with the company. On February 24th, 2023, student journalist Phoebe Cykosky of The Daily Collegian newspaper at Penn State University covered a protest of USAS students on campus that called on the university leadership to “hold Nike accountable” and cut ties with the company. Cykosky wrote: [M]embers of the Penn State Chapter of United Students Against Sweatshops gathered [in front of the Allen Street Gates on Friday afternoon during a protest] to call on the university to suspend its Nike contract until worker’s rights violations at the Hong Seng Knitting Factory in Bangkok, Thailand are remediated. [Penn State graduate student Keegan] Conrad said the purpose of the protest was to continue “pushing for their rights to have their wages owed to them.” When the factory in Thailand temporarily closed during the coronavirus pandemic, “it was required by law to pay workers part of their wages,” according to the campaign’s website. “Instead, the factory forced workers to accept unpaid leave, robbing them of $600,000,” the website said.   [ https://www.psucollegian.com/news/campus/drop-nike-penn-state-chapter-of-united-students-against-sweatshops-calls-on-university-to-suspend/article_c5800354-b496-11ed-b72c-577b61e133f9.html ]

While anti-sweatshop activists can claim significant victories, a great deal of work remains to be done to eliminate abuses in the global economy. For this reason, the student movement that emerged in the 1990s offers valuable lessons for today.

• What policy changes were the student-activists in USAS demanding of their universities?
• What were some of the tactics used by student activists in the 1990s? Which of these do you think could make the biggest impact? Why?
• According to the reading, what were some of the accomplishments of USAS and the anti-sweatshop movement?
• What are some things that students today might do to tackle this issue?

— Research assistance provided by Sean Welch

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June 13, 2017

Tackling child labour in the fashion industry

by University of Bath

New research suggests that firms with a good reputation for ethical sourcing in the fashion industry are judged more harshly than their peers when child labour is discovered in their supply chain. Meggan Caddey, a final year PhD student, and Johanne Grosvold and Stephen Pavelin, all from the Centre for Business, Organisations and Society at the University of Bath, explain their findings.

Child labour remains a major societal challenge. The International Labour Organization (ILO) estimates that 168 million children are involved in child labour today, which the United Nations (UN) defines as "work for which the child is either too young – work done below the required minimum age – or work which, because of its detrimental nature or conditions, is altogether considered unacceptable for children and is prohibited". Many of these children work in the garment and fashion apparel industry.

The drive for child labour

According to the organisation Stop Child Labour, fast fashion has resulted in high demand for children who are willing to work for very low pay and in dangerous conditions. Some have suggested that their employment is tantamount to modern day slavery. Some of our best known high street brands including Adidas, H&M and Nike have relied on manufacturers who have subsequently been exposed as using children to work in unsafe conditions.

Increasingly, global firms are recognising that failure to address the challenge of child labour can seriously impact on their corporate reputation . However fashion supply chains are complex, relying on numerous suppliers, sub suppliers and manufacturers. According to H&M's Head of Sustainability Helena Helmersson, these supply chain networks are so complex that "it is impossible to be in full control".

Corporate responsibility and corporate reputation

Prior research indicates that, by going above and beyond the basic requirements for fulfilling their corporate social responsibilities, proactive firms can engender goodwill that acts as an insurance against potential damage to their reputation. The theory goes that if news of wrongdoing emerges from the supply chain of such a proactive firm, its reputation will suffer less because people will give it the benefit of the doubt - 'surely, this good firm must not be to blame'. Other firms that have no such record of exemplary behaviour would be more readily blamed and, as a result, their reputations would suffer more. According to this theory, H&M would suffer less of a reputational impact if child labour was uncovered in its supply chain, as it is now working strategically to become the most ethical fashion chain on the high street. We set out to test this theory in relation to supply chains in the apparel industry.

Research findings

Our study used an experimental vignette method. This involved presenting study participants with carefully constructed, lifelike scenarios, to evaluate their attitudes, opinions and views of a firm's actions regarding child labour in the fashion supply chain. Over 800 participants took part in our study, and our initial results are surprising. We found that a firm that had taken steps to address child labour and unsafe working conditions in its supply chain enjoyed a better reputation than a firm that had not. However, when something went wrong, people judged these firms more harshly than they did the firms that had previously behaved less responsibly. So, while firms that are more socially responsible tend to benefit from an improved reputation, such goodwill is accompanied by greater reputational risks - specifically, such a firm experiences greater harm to its reputation if unsafe labour practices are subsequently discovered in its supply chain.

Our findings imply that it is in firms' interests to address unsafe practices in their supply chains, as doing so results in a better corporate reputation. However, our results also suggest that steps taken to stamp out child labour and poor working conditions tend to strengthen the imperative for a firm to maintain a consistent commitment to responsible sourcing. If they don't, they risk particularly stringent reputational punishment. In effect, this can create something of a virtuous cycle, which gives momentum to firm's steps towards stamping out child labour and unsafe working conditions. Careful reputation management implies that firms setting high standards must continue to live up to them.

The business case for doing good

There is an increased policy emphasis from both governments and NGOs to reduce the use of child labour and unsafe working conditions in the supply chain. There is also evidence that firms are increasingly taking the problem of child labour seriously, with some estimates suggesting that reliance on child labour was reduced by 30% from 2002-2012. As our research shows, tackling this issue can bring benefits for both children and firms.

We provide distinctive new evidence that guides us towards a more detailed understanding of the business case for being good and doing good. By illustrating the reputational benefits of sustainable supply chain practices, our research findings can help motivate firms not already on board, and inspire those who have already taken action to sustain and expand their efforts. This may in turn encourage them to sign up to independent initiatives such as GoodWeave, which awards companies the right to carry the GoodWeave label if they can show that no child labour or bonded labour was used in the production of their goods. With 11% of the world's children still sacrificing school in order to work, this is no time for business to be complacent.

Provided by University of Bath

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Eradicating child labour in the food and fashion industries

An estimated 160 million children are engaged in child labour worldwide, the equivalent of 10% of the global child population. Of these, 70% are working in agriculture with a link to the fashion sector using goods to be exported to Europe. A recent EU-funded project has raised awareness among European consumers and engaged with policymakers and companies to improve the livelihoods of the smallholder farmers and workers behind these products.

An estimated 160 million children are engaged in child labour worldwide, the equivalent of 10% of the global child population 1 . Of these, 70% are working in agriculture with a link to the fashion sector using goods to be exported to Europe. A recent EU-funded project has raised awareness among European consumers and engaged with policymakers and companies to improve the livelihoods of the smallholder farmers and workers behind these products.

Many child labourers are essential workers in supply chains for food and products used in the fashion industry bound for Europe 2 .  Child labour and forced labour, gender inequality, discrimination, poor working conditions and renumeration and other poverty-related challenges remain a reality behind the many products imported into the EU, and consumed by Europeans on a daily basis 3 .  

The pan-European project Trade Fair Live Fair 4 , funded under the EU Development Education and Awareness Raising (DEAR) Programme , achieved key transformative change targeting policymakers, European citizens, and the private sector 5 . The aim of the project – led by Fairtrade International together with over 20 consortium partner members of the fair trade and sustainable fashion movement – was to find solutions to the endemic poverty facing many producers and workers in developing countries, caused by power imbalance in supply chains.

Best practices of the Trade Fair Live Fair project:

• Influencing EU policy from local to global
• Evidence-based research informing private sector action
• Mobilizing European consumers to demand change

1. Influencing EU policy from local to global

The Fair Trade Advocacy Office (FTAO) was the partner organisation leading the public policy advocacy work with local, national and European authorities. “The logic of this project was to scale up from local support of cities and communities to fair trade and ethical fashion, and bring it to the European level,” explains Sergi Corbalán, Executive Director, Fair Trade Advocacy Office.

While working on public policy advocacy, the Trade Fair Live Fair project showed that partnerships were essential in reaching over 4,000 policymakers and civil society organisations (CSO). Sergi Corbalán explains “hard work and compromise are crucial in order to change EU public policy results.” He continues, “It is often imperative to find the balance between growth and sustainability.” This can be best achieved once the priorities of workers, who are on the bottom of the supply chain, are better reflected in the commitments and policy changes of national governments.

The Trade Fair Live Fair project also contributed to ensuring that the Unfair Trading Practices Directive , adopted by the EU, also protects producers and workers in the south, as non-EU suppliers.

Trade Fair Live Fair also enabled cocoa producers from Western African countries to inform the EU multistakeholder cocoa dialogue led by the European Commission. Under this umbrella, the project’s outputs – led by Fairtrade Foundation – highlighted the need for EU companies to pay better prices for cocoa beans, in order for local farmers to achieve a living income and ensure the well-being of children. Policy reports produced during this project enabled Fairtrade to lead effective advocacy on living incomes over the past few years, whilst public campaigning efforts, such as the Fairtrade Fortnight festival in the UK, have helped build public support and political will for action.

Textile is the other big pillar in which the Trade Fair Live Fair project has been instrumental. This project – with a coalition of 53 European CSOs – asked the European Commission to put in place an EU-textile strategy , which ensures textile supply chains respect human rights while also promoting the circularity of the supply chains.

2. Evidence-based research informing private sector action

Traidcraft Exchange led the component of the project that interacts with the private sector.  The focus of this area was to identify what kind of business models are needed to solve the current imbalances.

Traidcraft Exchange and the World Fair Trade Organisation (WFTO) published the report Creating the new economy , gathering the opinions of 323 fair trade enterprises and sharing 19 case studies providing specific insights on governance, innovation, commercial approach and inclusive business models.

A highlight of this report identified the primary challenge of adapting business models to achieve change: companies focus on extracting maximum profits for shareholders, creating inequalities and often allowing limited investment in the planet. The challenge lies in engaging companies to respect the environment, invest in areas where people are often marginalised or left out, while running a viable business.

Erinch Sahan, Chief Executive of WFTO, explains how business models can adapt for the future by “favouring and supporting supply chains”. He also recommends “to adapt purchasing policies to accommodate their distinctive characteristics and to report impact to create an expectation of their ethical practice.”

3. Mobilizing European consumers to demand change

Fairtrade Foundation UK led the consortium’s research and public mobilization and awareness-raising activities. The supply chain evidence generated by the research not only informed the project’s pan-European campaigns across 20 countries (with concrete case studies, statistics and killer facts), but also helped project partners to bring concrete positions to national and local debates while demanding responses to unsustainable production realities on the ground. The project’s State of Progress report analyses the impact generated by Trade Fair Live Fair , sharing key achievements in supply chain transparency, better livelihoods for smallholders, and recommendations for advancing SDG 12 in a COVID-19 and climate crisis context. In total, the project partners engaged more than 1.2 million EU citizens on trade justice issues, reaching 50 million people indirectly.

Fashion Revolution led a public advocacy and awareness campaign and researched the reliable information available for European consumers about the working conditions in the garment industry.

This pan-European consumer survey interviewed 5,000 people aged 16-75 in the five largest European markets (Germany, UK, France, Italy and Spain). Results of this survey prove a growing appetite for young Europeans to buy clothes made without harming the environment, workers, animals, or consumers. Ranked top of the priorities mentioned, 45% of the interviewees stressed the importance to eradicate child labour.

The involvement of young Europeans was done mainly on social media. Provocative, inquisitive, accessible, and inclusive messages were posted demanding greater industry transparency. Sarah Ditty, Global Policy Director of Fashion Revolution, explains, “this campaign avoided negative protesting, victimising, and naming or shaming.”

Interested and committed citizens played an active role thanks to the open-source products, in several languages and formats, to customise their demands for change. For those interested to know more, the organisation also produced educational guides, inspirational and informative videos, and tools and templates to guide them through their needs towards companies and policymakers.

The Trade Fair Live Fair project has been instrumental in understanding the different levels of awareness of public authorities depending on the Member State country, engaging with the private sector to be more in line with fair trade practices, and mobilising citizens demanding more transparency in supply chains.

Click on the play button below to watch our video about the pan-European project Trade Fair Live Fair . 

Have you been working on the eradication of child labour or are you promoting fair trade practices in Europe?

What was your approach?

Did you meet any challenges and how did you address them?

Leave your comment below!

Credit: Video © Capacity4dev | Photo © Fashion Revolution 

1  According to the International Labour Organisation (ILO), numbers decreased by 30% between 2000 and 2012, but COVID-19, with its economic recession and the temporary school closures, is increasing the numbers again for the first time in 20 years . For this reason, the United Nations has declared 2021 the International year to eliminate child labour . The new ILO estimates were released on 10 June 2021 .

2 The EU , as the largest trading bloc, is joining the efforts made by ILO , UNICEF , and Fairtrade to eradicate this global problem by pledging zero-tolerance on child labour in EU trade policy.

3 SDG 8 (target 8.7) aims at the eradication of child labour (“Take immediate and effective measures to eradicate forced labour, end modern slavery and human trafficking and secure the prohibition and elimination of the worst forms of child labour, including recruitment and use of child soldiers, and by 2025 end child labour in all its forms”).

4 The Trade Fair Live Fair project was funded by the Development Education and Awareness Raising (DEAR) Programme (INTPA G.3) and implemented by a consortium led by Fairtrade International involving as partners the Fairtrade Foundation, Traidcraft, Commerce Equitable France, World Fair Trade Organisation, Fashion Revolution and the Fair Trade Advocacy Office. 

5 The EU has recently adopted a Strategy on the rights of the child (March 2021) with a specific chapter on external action which particularly focuses on the fight against child labour. Furthermore, numerous projects have been funded by the EU such as  CLEAR Cotton which aims at contributing to the elimination of child labour and forced labour in the cotton, textile and garment value chains. 

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THE ISSUE OF CHILD LABOUR WITHIN FASHION SUPPLY CHAINS

2013, THE ISSUE OF CHILD LABOUR WITHIN FASHION SUPPLY CHAINS

This paper aims to investigate the variety of social responsibility that global fashion companies take for child labour in their supply chains. Through this, buying attitudes and practices have been discussed with regards to the effects they have on child labour. The research is based on theoretical framework that was used to analyse the improvements that companies need to make to their supply chain to prevent ethical issues. Secondary research was conducted in order to provide thorough analysis of the existing theoretical knowledge; themes were drawn from this and then used as a framework for questions asked during primary research interviews with four industry professionals. Findings highlight the differences between theory and practical implications in the fashion industry and the current approaches that buyers are using to control ethical misconducts of their suppliers. Due to the limitations of the research, no practical implications have been made, however contribution to the research topic is highlighted in original findings of social responsibility in fashion industry with specifics to the child labour phenomenon.

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Child Labor in Fast Fashion: Unraveling the Dark Threads

Little hands look their best holding toys and books, but unfortunately, not every child is blessed with a clean and carefree childhood. Millions of children worldwide are victims of child labor, toiling hard for 14-16 hours every single day, in exchange for a few pennies. While child labor exists in varied industries, the garment manufacturing sector has been a point of concern for several international child rights organizations. And why not? Child labor in the fast fashion world consists of children working in almost every step of the supply chain: from cultivating cotton seeds to harvesting cotton balls, spinning yarn, dyeing and participating in various stages of garment production in factories throughout the globe.

The ILO has defined child labor as, “work that deprives children of their childhood, their potential and their dignity, and that is harmful to physical and mental development. It refers to work that is mentally, physically, socially or morally dangerous and harmful to children; and/or interferes with their schooling.” But multinational corporations don’t seem to bother. Because the only thing that matters to large fast fashion brands is to mill in pools of profits. No matter what or who’s at stake! 

Child Labor in Fast Fashion: Understanding the Gravity

What is child labor, why do fast fashion companies utilize child labor, to cut production costs, source of income for the underprivileged, flexibility & agility in the production process, insufficient legal enforcement mechanisms, complex global supply chains, prevalence of child labor in the fashion industry, children’s rights and the role of organizations, impact on children involved in child labor, societal challenges in combating child labor, economic factors, social factors, cultural factors, legal factors & enforcement challenges, what can be done to steer clear of child labor, what can fashion industry do to avoid using child labor, what can consumers do to curb the menace of child labor, concluding thoughts….

Child labor refers to the employment of children in any form of work that deprives them of their childhood, interferes with their ability to attend regular schools, and is mentally, physically, socially, or morally harmful. It is a violation of children’s rights and often perpetuates a cycle of poverty with limited future opportunities. 

Child labor can be categorized into two main types: Hazardous and Non-hazardous.

• Hazardous Child Labor: It involves work that is dangerous to a child’s physical and mental well-being. The nature of these tasks often exposes them to unsafe working conditions with high-risk materials at use and practices that may harm their health or development. Examples of hazardous child labor include working in mines, garment production factories, handling chemicals in leather tanneries, synthetic fibers production units, and so on.
• Non-hazardous Child Labor: It constitutes of work that is not necessarily dangerous but still interferes with a child’s education and development. While not directly posing immediate physical harm, it deprives children of their right to education and normal childhood activities. Some common types of non-hazardous child labor can be found in various industries, including garment factory, agriculture, domestic work and other informal service sectors.

In the garment industry, there is a disturbing practice of employing children in exploitative working conditions. These young individuals are tasked with various labor-intensive jobs such as beading, sewing buttons, trimming loose threads, cutting fabrics, and assembling garments. Unfortunately, these minors are subjected to long working hours, low wages, and inadequate safety measures, effectively creating environments akin to sweatshops . It is disheartening to witness the use of child labor and the existence of companies that resort to such practices.

Cotton production is another area where child labor is a widespread practice. As one of the world’s most cultivated crops, cotton serves as a crucial raw material for textile production. But cotton harvest involves long hours of laborious work in harsh conditions. And hiring children turn out to be really effective as their little fingers tend to cause less damage to the cotton balls while picking. No wonder, 71% of child labor exists in agriculture, with cotton harvest as a major category.

Child labor in the fashion industry has been a pressing issue worldwide. The prospect of employing children as a form of cheap labor pushes companies to outsource production to developing countries where labor rights are, let’s say, non-existent. And employers can easily escape without taking responsibility because of the complexity of the fashion supply chain. The global campaign coordinator of Stop Child Labour, Sofia Ovaa, said, “There is no supervision or social control mechanisms, no unions that can help them to bargain for better working conditions. These are very low-skilled workers without a voice, so they are easy targets.” Some reasons why fast fashion and child labor seem to be reciprocal are:

Child labor allows fast fashion companies to cut down on production costs. Children are often trapped to work for lower wages compared to adult workers who expect a decent minimum wage, which consequently helps these brands to maximize their profit margins. While this approach forces children into child labour, it ultimately results in adult unemployment.

In certain regions, particularly in developing countries, child workers act as a source of income for underprivileged communities. Fast fashion companies take advantage of this availability of cheap labor to meet the demand for low-cost production. This sector exploits such communities with limited economic opportunities, where child labor becomes a means of survival for families in extreme poverty. Lack of education and job opportunities further make these sections of vulnerable people more susceptible to child labor practices.

Child labor can offer flexibility and agility in production processes. Children are often more adaptable to long working hours and repetitive tasks, allowing garment factories to meet tight production deadlines and respond swiftly to market demands.

Most developing countries have weak labor laws, and insufficient legal enforcement mechanisms fail to deter fast fashion brands from engaging in child labor. These companies get easy access to child workers and take advantage of this regulatory gap without facing significant consequences or scrutiny.

The global supply chains of fast fashion brands can be complex, involving multiple intermediaries and subcontractors. This complexity can make it challenging for companies to trace the origins of their products, and effectively monitor labor conditions, making it easier for the involvement of child labor to go undetected.

Child labor in clothing industry has been prevalent for decades, despite global efforts to eliminate it. What’s depressing is obtaining accurate statistics on child labor in this sector is challenging due to its hidden nature, limitations in monitoring systems, and lack of transparency in supply chains. However, data from reputable sources such as the International Labour Organization (ILO), UNICEF, and other relevant organizations shed light on the scale of the problem to a great extent. Hold your heart, because this might be triggering!

1. According to the ILO , approximately 160 million children worldwide are engaged in child labor, with a significant number involved in the production of garments and textiles alone. However, it is important to note that these figures represent estimates based on reported incidents and surveys. So there is every chance that the true extent of child labor in the fashion industry may be even higher.

2. Majority of the developing countries have a higher incidence of child labor in the fashion industry. Nations such as Bangladesh , China , India , Pakistan , and Myanmar are found to be associated with alarming rates of child workers in garment production. These countries, which are major hubs for textile manufacturing, face challenges in enforcing strong labor regulations and ensuring the protection of minors.

3. A multitude of clothing companies have been associated with utilizing child labor in their supply chains. However, it is crucial to approach such information with caution due to the complexity of supply chain networks. Notorious cases in the past have involved multinational fast fashion brands, like Primark , Nike , Adidas , and more, drawing attention to the urgent need for increased transparency and responsible sourcing practices.

4. The cotton industry is considered to engage in the worst forms of child labour. In direct violation of the universally ratified ILO Convention, 182 on the Worst Forms of Child Labor, children working in cotton production are subjected to a range of detrimental conditions. They remain exposed to harmful pesticides, work in fields at high temperatures for long hours, and face risks from insects and other animals. Uzbekistan’s cotton agriculture sector has been infamously making minors as young as 8-year-olds work in cotton harvesting.

5. Over 29.8 million individuals are trapped in modern slavery, where adults, facing the struggle to make ends meet with their meager wages, often feel compelled to resort to involving their children in slave labor within the fashion industry.

The hidden nature of child labor, subcontracting practices, and limited tracking and reporting systems make it difficult to capture the full extent of the problem. Additionally, the fast-paced nature of the fashion industry, with its constant demand for new collections and tight production deadlines, adds complexity to monitoring child labor practices effectively.

To gain a comprehensive understanding of the extent of child labor in the fashion industry, increased transparency and research are essential. This includes enhancing supply chain traceability, promoting ethical sourcing practices, and engaging in collaborative efforts among governments, organizations, and companies to address child labor effectively. Only through concerted action and a commitment to transparency can the fashion industry make significant progress in eradicating child labor and ensuring the protection of children’s rights.

Children under the age of 18 have fundamental child rights that are intended to provide freedoms and protections to every child, regardless of their social, economic, or cultural background. These rights include the right to education , protection from exploitation and abuse, access to healthcare, and the right to grow up in a safe and nurturing environment.

International humanitarian organizations such as the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) and the International Labor Organization (ILO) are all set out to eradicate every form of child labor at a global level. Both these institutions recognize that child labor is a violation of children’s rights and a barrier to their development.

1. UNICEF : This recognized organization is dedicated to advocating for children’s rights, providing assistance to children in need, and promoting policies that prioritize their well-being. UNICEF works to combat child labor through various programs and initiatives, focusing on education, awareness campaigns, capacity building, and social protection measures. They collaborate with governments, civil society, and other stakeholders to create child-friendly policies and establish legal frameworks to curb child labor.

2. ILO : This is a specialized agency of the United Nations that focuses on labor-related issues, including the strict measures on child labor laws. The organization has adopted conventions and standards, such as the ILO Convention No. 182 on the Worst Forms of Child Labour, which calls for immediate action to eliminate hazardous child labor. Through conventions, programs, and technical assistance, the ILO works with governments, employers’ and workers’ organizations to develop comprehensive strategies and policies for the prevention of child labor.

Besides the UNICEF and ILO, two other non-profit organizations working towards the prohibition of child labour and upholding children’s rights are The Child Labor Coalition ( CLC ) in the U.S. and The Action Against Child Exploitation ( ACE ) in Japan. Together, their joint efforts rescue and rehabilitate child labourers, and create an environment where children can enjoy their rights and reach their full potential.

Child labor has detrimental effects on children, both physically and psychologically. In terms of physical effects, minors are subjected to uncertain working conditions, resulting in physical injuries, accidents, health risks, and stunted growth. They may experience respiratory problems from exposure to harmful substances, injuries from operating machinery, and musculoskeletal issues from repetitive tasks.

Again, garment and textile factories generate enormous amounts of wastewater and greenhouse gas emissions. Therefore, the mental and physical health of children working in such fast fashion supply chains have every chance to be drastically affected.

Furthermore, working long hours in strenuous conditions leaves little time for proper nutrition, resulting in malnutrition and improper growth. Insufficient food intake can impair their physical development and weaken their immune systems. This can lead to chronic fatigue, exhaustion, and physical stress, negatively impacting their overall health.

As far as psychological effects are concerned, child laborers are exposed to stressful and exploitative environments, leading to psychological trauma. They may experience anxiety, depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) due to harsh working conditions. The picture gets worse with verbal and physical abuse, along with a lack of emotional support. Moreover, child labor deprives children of education, contributing to feelings of frustration, hopelessness, and low self-esteem. This lack of education puts an end to their chance of a better life, binding them to the vicious cycle of poverty.

Overall, child labor disrupts the normal physical, emotional, and cognitive development of children. It hampers their ability to develop essential life skills, critical thinking abilities, and emotional resilience, which are crucial for their all-inclusive well-being.

Combatting child labor is a complex task due to various societal challenges. Economic, social, and cultural factors contribute to the persistence of child labor:

• Poverty: Economic deprivation and lack of alternatives force families to rely on their children as a means of survival because wages earned by them cover a significant portion of their household income.
• Informal Economy: Child labor is prevalent in the informal sector, where regulation and enforcement bodies are lax. This system makes it difficult to monitor and prohibit such exploitative practices.
• Demand for Cheap Labor: Industries seeking low-cost production and fast turnaround times create a demand for cheap labor, leading to the exploitation of child workers.
• Inadequate Social Protection Systems: Weak civil protection systems fail to provide sufficient support to vulnerable families, leaving them with limited resources and pushing children into labor.
• Social norms: Deep-rooted social norms, such as gender biases or cultural acceptance of child labor, can fuel the practice and hinder efforts to eradicate it. Discrimination against girls often results in their disproportionate involvement in child labor. Traditional gender roles and biases further pitch into their exploitation in domestic work, agriculture, and other sectors.
• Traditional Practices: In some communities, child labor may be deeply ingrained in cultural traditions and perceived as a necessary part of a child’s development or skill-building.
• Migrant and Informal Labor: Migration patterns, particularly within vulnerable communities, like gypsies and refugees, can expose children to exploitative labor practices, as their families may lack legal protections and access to social services.

Legal factors and enforcement challenges further impede the eradication of child labor. This includes issues like:

• Weak Legislations: Inadequate or ambiguous laws related to child labor create loopholes, making it difficult to hold violators accountable and enforce strict penalties.
• Lack of Resources: Insufficient funding, trained personnel, and infrastructure hinder the effective implementation and monitoring of child labor laws.
• Corruption: Widespread corruption within law enforcement agencies can undermine efforts to combat child labor, as it allows employers to evade prosecution and continue exploiting children.

Companies should foster transparency in the supply chain by mapping and monitoring each stage of production. They should implement responsible sourcing practices and work with suppliers who uphold ethical labor standards. Next, they can encourage manufacturers to obtain certification from recognized organizations such as Fair Trade Certified , Bluesign , Fair Wear Foundation and more that verify ethical practices. Also, businesses can support educational initiatives and community development programs that empower families and provide alternatives to child labor. They can invest in vocational training programs to enhance employment opportunities for adults.

Over 130 brands have joined the Fair Wear Foundation , pledging their commitment to a code of labor practices that strictly prohibits child labor. These accredited brands go beyond internal policies by conducting regular audits to ensure all suppliers involved in the cut-make-trim stage of production meet these stringent standards. This expansive approach sets them apart from most companies, highlighting their dedication to eradicating child labor in the fashion industry.

Lotte Schuurman of the Fair Wear Foundation says, “Brands can start off by creating a supply register. Fashion brands normally have 200 or more suppliers. You should start by knowing who your manufacturers are and visiting them.”

So you see, the fashion industry is actually capable of avoiding child labor and conducting operations more responsibly, if it really wants to. Some guidelines that this sector can take are:

•  Executing strict measures to trace the origin of materials and labor. Brands can verify transparency throughout their supply chain, making it easier to identify and address any instances of child labor.
• Conducting frequent audits and inspections of suppliers help guarantees compliance with labor standards. This includes making sure that no child labor is employed in the production process.
• Establishing and enforcing a robust code of conduct that explicitly prohibits the use of child labor is crucial. This acts as clear guidelines for manufacturers and holds them accountable for their labor management.
• Collaborating with reputable organizations and initiatives dedicated to eradicating child labor allows brands to leverage their expertise and resources. These partnerships can help develop effective strategies and share the best business ethics.
• Training programs, manpower handling and capacity-building initiatives for suppliers support them in developing the necessary skills and knowledge to meet ethical labor standards. This empowers them to create safer working environments.
• Supporting fair trade practices and ensuring fair living wages for workers across the supply chain promotes ethical labor practices and reduces the likelihood of child labor exploitation.
• Engaging in partnerships with local communities enables the promotion of education and the protection of children’s rights. By working closely with communities, brands can actively contribute to improving the welfare of children and families.
• Prioritizing responsible sourcing, which includes selecting certified fair trade suppliers who adhere to strict labor prototypes. This assures that the products are produced ethically, without the use of child labor.
• Fashion brands should communicate their efforts to eliminate child labor to consumers. This clarity builds trust and allows consumers to make informed choices, supporting labels that prioritize ethical labor practices.
• Lastly, clothing companies can use their influence to advocate for stronger legislation and industry regulations aimed at addressing child labor. By actively participating in policy discussions, they can contribute to systemic change and create a more ethical fashion industry.

While the entire fashion industry and governments play a huge role in fixing this ever-lasting issue of child labor, as consumers, we have a duty to stand against this practice and safeguard the childhoods of every child on Earth. Some of our actions that will really prove fruitful are:

• Everyone should educate themselves about companies’ labor practices and support fair trade brands that demonstrate a commitment to ethical sourcing and fair labor.
• Choosing products with fair trade or responsible manufacturing certifications and labels guarantees that the items have been produced under ethical labor conditions.
• Prioritizing quality over quantity and opting for sustainable clothing brands helps reduce the demand for fast fashion and supports brands that prioritize responsible practices.
• Always research brands to find those with transparent supply chains and strict labor standards. Supporting such businesses encourages transparency and an accountable attitude.
• If you are informed enough, then try raising awareness about child labor among your friends, family,neighbourhood, and communities. Advocating for fair labor practices can actively contribute to the movement for ethical fashion.
• Backing initiatives and campaigns that promote ethical fashion is a great idea to spread knowledge about child labor, which is important to drive change within the industry.
• Opting for second-hand or vintage clothing offers an alternative to supporting the fast fashion industry and can be a sustainable choice.
• Consumers can encourage brands to disclose information about their supply chains and child labor policies. This promotes accountability and encourages brands to improve their practices.
• If you come across brands that doesn’t disclose information about its factories, then directly reach out to them to express your concerns about labor practices and demand answers. This sends a clear message that ethical practices matter to consumers.
• Staying informed about legislation related to child labor and supporting organizations actively working to combat child labor in the fashion industry can have a collective impact on driving change.

Despite the daunting reality, there has been notable progress in combatting child labor. Since 2000, the number of children engaged in child labor has decreased by one-third, dropping from 246 million to 160 million children. Among them, approximately 79 million are involved in hazardous work, another significant decline from 170 million in 2000. Yes, it’s not enough! But these stats are a glimmer of hope that if corporations, governments, social bodies and consumers unite, child labor can be wiped out.

Let’s empower children and break the chains of child labor!

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Child Labour and the Fashion Industry 

Child labour is a serious issue that continues to plague various sectors. As much as we would want to think that child labour in the fashion industry is a thing of the past, it is disheartening to know that it is still a problem, especially in developing countries. 

 According to International Labour Organisation, around 160 million children worldwide are engaged in it.  It is not just a violation of the basic rights of children, but it is also a violation of several international laws. 

According to the UN, child labour is “A type of work for which the child is either too young or work which, because of its detrimental nature, is altogether considered unacceptable for children and hence prohibited.”

When we look at the fashion industry, children are employed in the production of garments, accessories and textiles. 

Some reasons why children are pushed into labour – 

• Poverty – Many children come from low-income households and do not have a choice. They have to work in unacceptable and unsafe working conditions for long hours at lower than minimum wage to earn a livelihood. 
• Weak law and enforcement – Many developing countries have weak regulations when it comes to labour. More often than not, there is no supervision or labour unions that can help them bargain for a safe work environment. As a result, children slip easily under the radar and this allows the industries to exploit the workers. 
• High demand for fast fashion – In order to fulfil the high demand for fast fashion at a lower cost, many employers prefer hiring children. They can also be lured in with fake promises and are more likely to listen to the instructions without questions. 
• Lack of education – In many countries, education is not easily accessible. It also doesn’t help that people can’t afford to send their children to school because of poor financial conditions. This means that the children end up working in low-skill jobs. 

Although things have been improving, various steps need to be taken. Contributions need to be made by –

• The Government – Adults need opportunities to break the vicious cycle of poverty they find themselves stuck in. The government has a prominent role to play here. It should come up with various schemes for the creation of better job opportunities, so that the children of such adults do not suffer.  The labour laws in developing countries need to be stricter along with better implementation of regulations. The funding for education should be increased so that children have access to quality education.  
• Stakeholders in the fashion industry – Fashion brands must take responsibility for their supply chain and ensure that child labour is not used at any stage of production. Sometimes well-known fashion brands do not have control over the supply chain fully as they can get subcontracted to other parties and it may be difficult for companies to interfere. But collaborating with NGOs and similar organisations can help in the investigation and greater transparency within the industry. They should also provide fair wages and safe working conditions to all workers. 
• Consumers –  As informed adults, consumers have a responsibility to raise a voice to bring about a change. If consumers refuse to buy products from companies known to employ children, it will force them to find other means of production. Consumers can create pressure by holding the brands accountable for any violations.

In conclusion, child labour is a pressing issue that needs urgent attention. It is essential for the government, stakeholders in fashion and consumers to work together to put an end to this exploitative practice and ensure that children are able to enjoy their basic rights and childhood. 

References 

https://www.projectcece.com/blog/559/child-labour-in-the-fashion-industry/#:~:text=Child%20labour%20in%20fashion%20can,labour%20is%20found%20in%20agriculture

https://goodonyou.eco/child-labour/

https://shapecharity.org/2021/07/19/child-labour-in-the-fashion-industry/

Rabiya Singh

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Jasmine farms supplying Estée Lauder and L’Oréal linked to child labour

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A new documentary from the BBC World Service, Perfume’s Dark Secret , has uncovered rampant child labour abuses in Egyptian jasmine farms that supply global perfume manufacturers for leading brands and groups, including Estée Lauder and L’Oréal. The documentary explores how ineffective auditing systems are failing child labour victims, of which there are an estimated 160 million globally . Experts say incoming due diligence laws could have an impact.

The BBC found children as young as five picking jasmine from 3am in four different locations in Al-Gharbia Governorate, 120km from Cairo, including Shubra Beloula El-Sakhaweya , a small village that is responsible for producing 75 per cent of Egypt’s jasmine. The children featured in Perfume’s Dark Secret suffer from injuries and allergies caused by pollen, impacting their academic performance and causing potentially lasting health impacts. The main culprits, according to the investigation team, are beauty industry conglomerates at the top of the value chain, which are being accused of setting the low prices leading to child labour abuses in their supply chains. Parents feel forced to include their children in harvesting to compensate for the low price of jasmine, in addition to rampant inflation and the weak Egyptian pound.

Jasmine farming has been a vital source of income for Shubra Beloula since the 1960s when it was first introduced as a crop. According to a BBC story from February 2022, it’s common for entire families to pick jasmine flowers during the six-month harvesting season from June to November. “Everyone in this village from the eldest to the youngest picks jasmine flowers,” picker Mohamed Faraj told the BBC at the time. “Kids as young as seven years old wake up by dawn, pick jasmine for a few hours then head to school. I used to do so since I was nine years old.”

While children working with their families to harvest the flower isn’t considered forced labour by the International Labour Organization’s (ILO) definition , it contributes to the cycle of poverty that affects millions of individuals across the Global South, and is regarded as one of the worst forms of child labour .

Who controls the price of jasmine?

The Egyptian jasmine trade is worth $6.5 million and employs an estimated 30,000 people. But with one kilogram of jasmine flowers selling for only EGP 45 (£1.46) on the commodity market, pickers are often living below the poverty line on less than £1 a day. (The price is set at the beginning of the season by the factory owners. It fluctuates depending on demand and the perfume market, but remains consistently low.) Egypt is facing an economic crisis that has seen record-high inflation as well as the falling value of the Egyptian pound, which has dropped 50 per cent against the US dollar since January 2022. Pickers tell the BBC that if the price of jasmine was kept in line with inflation, it would be worth EGP 140 (£3.50 at the time of filming) per kilogram.

“In the village, people have been complaining about the low prices for years, and factories keep telling them that this is the best price we can give you,” says BBC investigative journalist Ahmed Elshamy, who produced the documentary.

Meanwhile, consumer prices for perfume have spiked since 2020 and the global sector is expected to be worth almost $70 billion by 2030, according to market research firm Fortune Business Insights. Suppliers, however, are not benefiting from any of that growth; the prices they receive for the ingredients they supply have remained stagnant, according to the BBC. In fact, the liquid in a perfume bottle that may retail for $250 costs less than $1.50 to produce.

“Consumers witnessed an increase in perfume prices after [the pandemic], so this increase has to be reflected on the natural oil prices and the pickers’ lives,” says Elshamy. There’s little evidence of this in Egypt. “The budgets to make perfume are really tight, so we understand that when the fragrance houses are sourcing raw materials, they aim to keep costs of goods as low as possible,” says Perfume’s Dark Secret director Natasha Cox.

In July 2023, BBC investigators visited Al-Gharbia Governorate and several of its jasmine farms, which stretch 720 acres of land. Through conversations with dozens of families, landlords, workers and jasmine collection point managers, investigators discovered that a significant number of jasmine pickers are children. They recorded children as young as five in the jasmine fields between the hours of 3am and 8am, when the flowers are in bloom and prime for harvest. In the documentary, Mirna El Helbawi, an Egyptian human rights activist and influencer, meets with a local family and reveals the EGP 10,000 (£170) retail price of a perfume containing Egyptian jasmine.

“I want the people using this perfume to see the pain of children in it and to speak up so that the factory owners and their clients can see the pain of the children,” says picker Heba, who harvests jasmine with her children — aged 15, 10 and 5 — to financially survive. “It’s not right that they’re exploiting the children for the price of perfume.”

Three major Egyptian jasmine companies — A Fakhry & Co, Machalico and Hashem Brothers — which own farms in Shubra Beloula, are at the centre of the investigation. They supply four main fragrance manufacturers — Givauden , Symrise , Firmenich and International Flavors and Fragrances Inc (IFF) — who produce perfume for the “masters” of the sector, including Estée Lauder and L’Oréal. These conglomerates set the budget for each perfume they launch, putting downward pressure on prices throughout the supply chain, leading to child labour abuses.

Audits are failing to catch child labour abuses

Child labour is rampant in many supply chains, but “70 per cent of child labour is in agriculture — raw commodities and anything in those lower tiers of a supply chain”, says Eleanor Harry, founder and chief executive of HACE , a company using data and AI to monitor child labour risks in supply chains. Of the estimated 160 million child labour victims around the world, Harry says that the majority are family workers in informal employment. “Child labour usually occurs because there is a gap between household income and household expenditure. As that gap widens, usually children work to feed that expenditure gap.”

BBC investigators found that children working in jasmine picking often do so without wearing enclosed shoes, head torches or protective clothing. And as a result, tend to suffer scratches and other injuries as well as skin and eye allergies from overexposure to pollen and pesticides. Around 80 per cent of jasmine processed by A Fakhry & Co is grown using fertilisers and pesticides, some of which Fakhry’s 2022 CSR report identified as “dangerous and illegal”.

Many independent studies have demonstrated that children are especially vulnerable to the impacts of chemical exposure because their brain and nervous systems are still developing. Children face chronic health risks from both short and long-term exposure, with evidence linking pesticide exposure to certain forms of cancer, asthma and organ damage as well as harmful impacts on neurodevelopment, among other health concerns.

“Academic performance also suffers when children, exhausted from picking jasmine in the early hours, fall asleep in school. Children are growing physically, mentally and socially, so they’re more vulnerable,” says Harry. “But there’s no data on the long-term occupational safety and health of adults who were child labourers — which shows just how little child labour is covered.”

Egypt’s Child Law , passed in 1996, prohibits children under the age of 14 from working. It makes exceptions for 12 to 14-year-olds to participate in seasonal agricultural work as long as it “is not hazardous to their health and growth, and does not interfere with their studies”. Additionally, it is illegal for children to work between 7pm and 7am.

All companies identified by the BBC’s investigations have made public commitments to the human rights charters, such as the United Nations Global Compact. Some include specific strategies for the prevention of child labour, while others outline child labour in their supplier codes of conduct. However, these commitments are voluntary and often rely on third-party auditing firms.

Sedex and the Union for Ethical Biotrade have been identified as the two main auditors used by fragrance houses and factories in the investigation. The BBC received “glowing” Sedex reports about A Fakhry from May 2023, showing that the auditors had pre-announced their visit, attended during the day, and only reviewed the factory, not the jasmine farms. “Children, like all people, are dynamic indicators,” says Harry. “So when you go to that farm or that supplier, and you don’t see the children, how do you prove that they were there? It’s so difficult because on that day, at the time when the auditor turned up, they weren’t there.”

Accountability through due diligence legislation

Rather than focusing on the inefficiencies and failings of auditing systems, Jason Judd, executive director of the Cornell University Global Labor Institute, believes that legal accountability will be crucial to eradicating child labour in supply chains. “Should we hold auditors accountable for bad data?” he asks. “I sense that this is not a good use of political energy. You want to focus on the root cause, which is that the lead firm doesn’t bear any costs or any legal consequences for a due diligence failure.”

Due diligence laws, including the French Corporate Duty of Vigilance Law introduced in 2017 and the Corporate Sustainability Due Diligence Directive proposed in 2022, placed onus on conglomerates at the top of the supply chain to identify and eradicate any child labour abuses. “Until we move away from private and voluntary regulations in which the lead firms are writing their own rules, conducting their own investigations through audits or certifications, and reporting their own results, then you won’t see a shift,” says Judd.

In a statement to Vogue Business , Estée Lauder said it believes in protecting the rights of children and has contacted its suppliers to “investigate this very serious matter”, adding that it recognises the socioeconomic complexities of the jasmine supply chain in Egypt and is working towards greater transparency.

L’Oréal told Vogue Business that it regularly audits its suppliers, and discovered child labour in its supply chains after the 2023 jasmine harvest (and before the BBC reached out), stating over email that the group has since worked with the Government of Egypt, the Fair Labor Association and the ILO to “drive systemic change in support of local communities”.

Fragrance house Givauden told the BBC that the concerns raised by the documentary are “deeply alarming” and that “improving the lives of communities in the jasmine supply chain is a responsibility for the entire chain”. Symrise said that child labour “diametrically contrasts the principles and standards that we provide ourselves”; International Flavors & Fragrances, Inc. said it has zero tolerance for child labour and has engaged a “trusted third-party human rights expert to conduct an independent review of our supply chain”; and Firmenich said it will “work to support initiatives that seek to collectively address this issue with industry partners and local jasmine farmers and we are willing to help fund such initiatives”.

The Egyptian jasmine companies denied the child labour allegations. A Fakhry and Co. said it’s “entirely prohibited” at both its farm and its factory, and that the suggestion that jasmine farmers’ and pickers’ wages keeps them below the poverty line is wrong — adding that jasmine-picking is pays better than other “comparable agricultural standards in Egypt”. Machalico said it doesn't use any pickers under 18 years old and that the price is discussed between factory owners every year, with the price increasing annually since 2022; and Hashem Brothers told the BBC it refused to comment on the report, “which is based on misleading information”.

Auditing firm Sedex said it stands firmly against all forms of labour rights abuses and exists to help businesses address these. “But no one tool alone can or should be relied on to uncover and remediate all environmental and human rights risks or impacts,” the company said in a statement to the BBC. UEBT said after conducting field assessments in Egypt in 2023, one company “has been issued a responsible sourcing attestation subject to an action plan which we reviewed and approved”, and the attestation will be withdrawn if the action plan is not implemented by mid 2024.

Experts and advocates say the recent evidence suggests that the perfume sector's efforts to date are not enough.

“The first thing [these companies] should be doing is recognise that they’ve got to get behind public regulation that levels the playing field and says the legal liability will be the same for all firms found to be buying in places where their due diligence is inadequate,” says Judd. “Otherwise, I’ll still be writing research about these problems in 20 years.”

Comments, questions or feedback? Email us at [email protected] .

Correction: This article was updated to reflect that factory owners set the price of jasmine at the start of the season. An earlier version of this article read that the conglomerates set the price (3/6/24).

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Child Labour In The Fashion Industry

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Play is the work of the child. Maria Montessori

In a globalised world where factories are in a “race to the bottom” to provide cheap fashion fast, children are often involved in the supply chain . For unscrupulous businesses, they constitute a cheap, compliant, and easily exploited labour force.

The sad truth of child labour

Around 160 million children are employed worldwide, of whom an estimated 79 million are engaged in the kind of child labour the  International Labour Organisation —and we—think should be eradicated.

UNICEF’s  Article 32 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child  states that “The government should protect children from work that is dangerous or might harm their health or their education.” This does  not  mean that children should not be allowed to do chores around the house or undertake suitable light work in the family business on the family farm, for instance. It does mean, however, that;

• Children should not be put into situations that might be harmful to their health or general well being;
• Asked to perform physically arduous tasks; or
• Have their rights (including the right to play, relaxation, and an education) compromised.

Why does child labour exist?

The reason many companies choose to employ children is that they slip so easily under the radar. According to  Sofie Ovaa  of  Stop Child Labour , one of the reasons children are so vulnerable is because “there is no supervision or social control mechanisms, no unions that can help them to bargain for better working conditions. These are very low-skilled workers without a voice, so they are easy targets.”

According to the  2019 Ethical Fashion Report , many companies are now aware of who their suppliers are at the final stage of manufacturing their clothing. “Although the majority of companies have begun tracing suppliers at these deeper stages of their supply chain, it is evident that many still have no knowledge of where their inputs and raw materials are being sourced. With less visibility, comes greater risk. The prominence of forced and child labour is well documented at these earlier stages of production.”

Child labour is a lose-lose situation

Because of their vulnerability, many companies will employ children in preference to adults. According to  The Centre for Research on Multinational Corporations,  “There is a clear link between child labour and low wages for adult workers, both in agriculture (cotton production) and in garment factories.” They argue that if “child labour was banned, labour would become more scarce, which would allow adult workers to negotiate better wages and improve labour conditions.”

This means that high levels of child labour may, in fact, correlate with adult unemployment and underemployment. If children are being paid less than adults to do the same job, families are worse off. If adults are  paid a living wage , their children can have the opportunity to get an education, thus giving them more opportunities to break the cycle of poverty.

Some may argue for the value of giving children opportunities to work and learn skills from a young age, such as apprenticeships that set them up with a trade for the rest of their lives. However, there is a big difference between helping out on a neighbour’s farm or learning a worthwhile trade and working for 12 hours in an unsafe and unsanitary factory.

There is arguably no part of the fashion industry that contributes to the well-being of a young child or gives them skills they could not equally learn later in life. On the more extreme end of the spectrum, where children work long hours for little pay, this can be seen as prohibitive to a child ever moving into more skilled employment as an adult, as they will never have the opportunity to gain skills in other areas.

Child labour in the cotton industry

Child labour can be found at all levels of the fashion industry, and nowhere is this more evident than cotton production. In the cotton industry,  children have historically been used  to cross-pollinate the cotton plants, to harvest the crop, and in  spinning, weaving, and dyeing mills.

This has been particularly evident in Uzbekistan, where government workers reportedly forced children to spend the summer months picking cotton and even threatened them with expulsion from school if they did not comply. However, after the campaigning and backlash from international activist organisations in the past few years,  the ILO has reported  “a huge drop in the number of school children being used in the cotton harvest.”

In cotton mills in Southern India in the past, poor girls were often enticed to work in circumstances that are virtually  bonded labour . Factory managers may even have had  hormones put in their food to stop them from menstruating , as women are seen to be less productive during their menstrual period. However,  according to a recent report , the Indian textile industry has “stepped up efforts to eradicate employment of child labour so as to keep their exports intact in the world markets.”

“Fast fashion has engendered a race to the bottom, pushing companies to find ever-cheaper sources of labour,” says a UNICEF report . “That cheap labour is freely available in many of the countries where textile and garment production takes place.”

Given that only 11% of brands included in  the 2021 Fashion Transparency Index  publish selected raw material suppliers, this raises concerns regarding the extent to which the average consumer unknowingly supports the exploitative measures in many parts of the supply chain.

What can we do?

The world we live in encompasses a vast amount of inequality, which no doubt exacerbates child labour and the exploitation of millions. As informed citizens, we have a responsibility to use our voices and our wallets to create change. If consumers refuse to buy products from companies known to use child labour, it becomes worthwhile for them to find other means of production. This has been shown to work in the past with companies like Nike, which  reformed its labour policies due to consumer pressure .

Although it can sound very bleak, things have been improving. The  number of children in child labour  has declined by one-third since 2000, from 246 million to 160 million children. Around half of them (79 million) are in hazardous work (down from 170 million in 2000). This was particularly the case for girls engaged in child labour, the rate of which fell by 40% since 2000, compared to 25% for boys. Despite this, the ILO reports that “Global progress against child labour has stalled since 2016”, as seen in the numbers, which have unfortunately held steady.

Despite being somewhat overwhelming, these stats paint the beginnings of an encouraging story. And several accreditations, such as Fair Trade , work to eradicate the worst forms of child labour.

The debates surrounding child labour are complex, which is why they require careful attention. Marginalised children and adults both need better options to begin to break the cycle of poverty . As consumers, we can take responsibility for our small role in the system.

It is possible to pay workers a fair wage and still make beautiful, affordable fashion. By choosing to support companies that don’t exploit the world’s most vulnerable groups, we can send a strong message.

Editor's note

This article was first published in 2017, and was last updated in 2021. Feature image via Unsplash. Good On You publishes the world’s most comprehensive ratings of fashion brands’ impact on people, the planet and animals. Use our Directory  to search more than 3,000 brands. We may earn a commission on sales made using our offer codes or affiliate links.

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Are the clothes you are wearing free from child labour?

This year is the International Year for the Elimination of Child Labour which calls on all of us to raise awareness of the importance of ending child labour and to step up our collective efforts for impactful and sustainable actions. Throughout the year we are publishing articles on different themes related to child labour (see all articles at the end of this page).

This month, we are turning our attention to child labour in the cotton and garment industry. Cotton is one of the world’s most widely grown crops and one of the most important agricultural commodities, as the main raw material for textiles. It is part of our everyday life and comfort, making up our clothes, house textiles and many manufactured products. Most child labour occurs in agriculture, and cotton is one of the crops where there is a high incidence of child labour.

Child labour in cotton and garment supply chains

How many of us have even once considered that a child may have had to work in a cotton field without protection against hazardous chemicals or work in a garment factory, day and night, to help produce the clothes we wear or textiles we consume? Global supply chains are opaque and can help hide child labour. Children who work are being deprived of a childhood and from getting an education, and will most likely be condemned to a life trapped in poverty.

Low cotton prices and wages push families to resort to chid labour. Nevertheless, millions of farmers and families are dependent on cotton production and textile and garment factories employ millions of workers, worldwide.

There is a high prevalence of children in child labour in at least 18 cotton producing countries, where forced labour is also present. There are many adult workers who are victims of labour rights violations or forced labour in cotton fields or garment factories, where child labour is also persistent.

There is also an environmental dimension to cotton production and the garment industry, as the cotton value chain contributes to between 0.3% and 1% of total global GHG emissions and consumes a lot of water. These emissions are contributing to climate change and at the same time, due to increased water scarcity, the industry is also at risk from its impacts.

What are the facts?

Child labour is work performed by a child that interferes with their education, or is harmful to their health or social development.

According to the latest Child Labour Global Estimates ,70% (or 112 million children) of all child labourers are in agriculture. This percentage increases to 82% for sub-Saharan Africa. Child labour in agriculture is especially common amongst younger children, for whom the physical demands and hazards of farm work can be particularly damaging.

The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) prohibits child labour and there are two fundamental ILO Conventions that directly address child labour: ILO Convention 138 on the minimum age for work and 182 on eliminating the worst forms of child labour . In addition to the international legal framework, the international community has set SDG target 8.7 which calls on countries to end child labour in all its forms by 2025.

Hazardous work in cotton production is among the worst forms of child labour, as children are exposed to harmful pesticides (as indicated by ILO Convention 182 on the Worst Forms of Child Labour , which was universally ratified in 2020). Children working in cotton can be exposed to harmful chemicals, subjected to isolation, high temperatures, and at risk from insects and other animal threats, causing serious health impacts.

What are the causes?

Poverty is the most important determinant of child labour. Often, adult workers earn so little that they do not make enough money to meet their family’s basic needs. There is a clear link between child labour and low wages for adult workers in cotton production and in the garment industry. Children are put to work to increase their family’s income. Children are easy to exploit, are cheap labourers and their small stature and agility mean they are often hired in preference to adults.

In most countries, child labour is prohibited. However, there is often poor enforcement of labour laws. Corruption and pressure from industry and trade interests combined with weak government capacities or a lack of urgency to act, create the enabling conditions for child labour to occur.

Supply chains in the garment sector can be highly fragmented, with several actors adding value at different levels. It is difficult to trace the origin of a garment back to the textile production and further to the production of cotton, due to often complex value chain and opaque subcontracting practices mainly in informal settings.

The role of industry

Businesses have a responsibility to comply with human rights and environmental standards, fundamental labour standards and principles, which include the prohibition of child labour, and it is the mandate and duty of state institutions to regulate business’ compliance. Companies can do a lot to stamp out child labour in their supply chains and specific actions include:

• Ensuring corporate accountability and extended supply chain responsibility
• Promoting and facilitating greater transparency and traceability
• Conducting due diligence, including human rights risk assessments and continuous monitoring
• Conducting responsible purchasing practices
• Adhering to labour rights and standards such as social dialogue, freedom of association and collective bargaining
• Supporting effective grievance mechanisms
• Supporting children (and their families and communities) in or at risk of child labour in their supply chains with remediation and prevention mechanisms
• Partnering with local and international organisations, including civil society, that are helping eradicate child labour

The EU stands committed to the eradication of child labour in cotton

You can read about the efforts of the EU to eliminate child labour in agriculture in our article from May and the EU has been actively supporting ‘ Garment Action ’ with specific measures to eliminate child labour and forced labour in the cotton, textile and garment value chains in selected countries.

The EU promotes the adherence to the Fundamental ILO Conventions in global supply chains. We also support the OECD Due Diligence Guidance for Responsible Supply Chains in the Garment and Footwear Sector that helps enterprises implement the due diligence recommendations contained in the OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises along the garment and footwear supply chain in order to avoid and address the potential negative impacts of their activities and supply chains. The risk factors on child labour are elaborated in the first module of the guidance.

The EU is strongly committed to zero-tolerance policy on child labour and forced labour, EU trade policies integrate this engagement. The EU continues to invest in responsible management in global supply chains, including through corporate social responsibility, due diligence, and the promotion of decent work and social and labour protection, that all contribute towards the eradication of child labour.

Helping eradicate child labour from cotton production in Uzbekistan

Major progress towards the eradication of child and forced labour from cotton production in Uzbekistan was made possible with the help of EU support. ILO monitors reported in 2018 that forced labour during the cotton harvest has been significantly reduced and child labour is no longer a concern.

The cotton harvest in Uzbekistan is one of the world’s largest recruitment operations, with some 2.6 million people temporarily picking cotton every year. Previously, over a million school children, as young as nine years old would miss school and help with the cotton harvest in dire conditions.

The ILO, with the financial support of the EU, has trained labour inspectors, public prosecutors and human rights activists on investigation techniques, enabled journalists to freely cover the issue and facilitated the exchange of best practices. Read more about the ILO project .

CLEAR Cotton - eradicating child labour in the cotton, textile and garment supply chains

Through the CLEAR Cotton project , we have partnered with the ILO and FAO to eliminate child labour in all its forms in the cotton, textile and garment value chains in target producing countries, Burkina Faso, Mali, Pakistan and Peru.

The project combines an integrated area-based and value chain approaches to cooperate with governments, social partners, local farmers and communities, and international buyers. It seeks to strengthen national legislation, policies and programmes to address the basic needs and rights of children and to combat child labour and forced labour and is supporting local governments, public services providers, and other relevant stakeholders to take effective action to stop child labour and forced labour in these sector.

In Pakistan, the FAO and ILO are working with cotton growing communities to build capacities and awareness to prevent harm to children and farmers from pesticides. This is an example of children performing hazardous tasks and is considered among the worst forms of child labour. The FAO have produced a documentary about the work: “ Protecting children from pesticides in Pakistan ”.

The project has so far removed 4,000 children from the cotton fields and reintegrated them into special schools; older children have received training for suitable jobs when reaching the minimum age for work, also in the cotton and ancillary sectors. See project brochure and project webpage .

Raising consumer awareness

The EU has been actively supporting awareness raising and consumer campaigns to highlight the hidden risks and consequences for people and the environment as a result of “cheap clothes”. The #BEYONDYOURCLOTHES and FashionChecker campaigns are informing consumers about labour rights and environmental issues related to the garment industry so people are empowered to take informed consumer choices.

Join us on our journey to end child labour

The EU will continue to explore new areas and innovative and effective approaches to eradicate child labour, in cooperation with existing initiatives and alliances. We are ready to actively participate and commit to continue working with all actors towards accelerated action to achieve target 8.7 by 2025 .

The FAO, in collaboration with the ILO, is organising the Global Solutions Forum: Acting together to end child labour in agriculture to increase awareness and knowledge on existing solutions to prevent and end child labour in different agricultural sub-sectors and different regions. It is expected to lead to concrete actions and strengthened collaborations among a wide range of actors and will feed into the Fifth Global Conference on Child Labour to be held in South Africa in 2022 . Jutta Urpilainen, European Commissioner for International Partnerships (INTPA) will be participating in a high level dialogue at the forum.

The UN Global Compact Local Networks UK & USA is holding a Webinar on Child Labour in Agriculture on 19 October to discuss the challenges and examine practical actions business can take to address child labour within the sector.

The EU ‘ Sustainable corporate governance initiative ’ aims at improving the EU regulatory framework on company law and corporate governance to better align the interests of all stakeholders and help companies to promote and protect social and human rights, including the rights of the child and the prohibition of child labour. To help the private sector comply with the upcoming legislation, the EU will be providing accompanying support to companies in the EU and in our partner countries.

We call on all to step-up their actions: governments, private sector, civil society, communities, education systems, trade unions and other stakeholders. If not, we risk losing another generation of children to child labour, who are missing out on education and other crucial opportunities in life.

Let’s end child labour together!

Further resources, news & events

• EU Strategy on the Rights of the Child .
• INTPA webpages on human rights and sustainable agriculture .
• Read the EU Statement on the World Day Against Child Labour .
• INTPA’s 2020 contribution to the FAO’s consultation on How can agriculture policies and strategies help to end child labour in agriculture .
• Workshop report United to end child labour in agriculture, EU-FAO-ILO event 12 June 2019 .
• EU article “A stitch in time – improving working conditions in the garment sector supply chains”
• EU Report: “A Background Analysis on Transparency and Traceability in the Garment Value Chain
• Visit the website for the International Year for the Elimination of Child Labour and keep up to date with what is happening.
• INTPA will take part to the discussions of The UN Global Compact Local Networks UK & USA Webinar on Child Labour in Agriculture on 19 October on the challenges and practical actions that business can take to address child labour within the sector.
• Join the upcoming FAO High-level Global Solutions Forum: Acting together to end child labour in agriculture (2-3 November) .
• Watch the FAO video “ What did you dream of becoming when you were a child? ”
• Watch the High-Level Dialogue for Action on Child Labour on 17 June .
• Read the report Child Labour: Global estimates 2020, trends and the road forward.
• Watch the World Day against Child Labour: Act Now, end Child Labour Conference where the ILO and UNICEF present the new Global Estimates, held on 10 June 2021 and watch a video from the ILO showing that the “global progress to end child labour has stalled” .

Previous monthly articles exploring different themes on child labour for the International Year

• January article on the launch of the International Year .
• February article on the song competition launched for the International Year .
• March article on empowering women and girls to end child labour .
• April article on child labours impact on health and wellbeing .
• May article on agriculture and child labour .
• June article titled “The time to act to end child labour is now” .
• July-August article: “When child labour is reduced, opportunities for youth increase” .
• September article: “Child labour is keeping millions of children out of school” .

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Advancing social justice, promoting decent work ILO is a specialized agency of the United Nations

Child labour

The CLEAR Cotton project “Eliminating Child Labour and Forced Labour in the Cotton, Textile and Garment Value Chains: An Integrated Approach” seeks to promote enhanced legislation and policies, to address the basic needs and rights of children engaged or at risk of child labour, and of victims of forced labour, while adopting an integrated area based approach, embedded in a value chain approach including cooperation with local industry and international buyers.

1 March 2018 - 28 February 2023

Development partner(s)

The European Union

GLO/17/15/EUR

Additional details

The CLEAR Cotton project is co-funded by the European Union (EU) and the International Labour Organization (ILO) and implemented in partnership with the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO).  

National context

According to the latest ILO-UNICEF global estimates, more than 160 million children are in child labour worldwide. Despite encouraging progress in Asia over the last two decades, the issue is persistent: in Central and Southern Asia, 26.3 million children aged 5 to 17 years old, representing 5.5 per cent of children in the region, are found in child labour situations. In addition, the Asia and the Pacific region present the highest prevalence of forced labour occurrences in the world. Among the 25 million people estimated to be in forced labour in the world, 16.55 million (66 per cent) are found in Asia, that is 4 victims for every thousand people. The Government of Pakistan is active in fighting both issues. It has ratified the ILO core Conventions related to child labour – the Minimum Age Convention, 1973 (No. 138) and Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention, 1999 (No. 182) – and related to forced labour – the Forced Labour Convention, 1930 (No. 29) and the Abolition of Forced Labour Convention, 1957 (No. 105). Since the devolution, labour issues are competencies of provincial governments. But evidence of both child labour and forced labour remain in Pakistan, including in its cotton, textile and garment value chains. The CLEAR Cotton Project aims at contributing to the elimination of all forms of child labour and forced labour in the cotton, textile and garment value chains. Pakistan is the fourth leading producer of cotton in the world with a significant growth potential. The textile industry contributes nearly one-fourth of industrial value-added and provides employment to about 40 per cent of industrial labour force. Textile products constitutes 62 per cent of the national exports and the sector contributes 8.5 per cent towards national GDP (ILO and Government of Pakistan’s data). Pakistan was also hit by the global COVID-19 pandemic. In addition to the threats to the public health, it could have important economic repercussions on the cotton sector in particular and thus affecting the livelihoods of 1.5 million farmers. The levels of cotton production indeed fell by 34 per cent in 2020 compared to previous campaign (Pakistan Cotton Ginners Association).  

Main project activities

• Improve access to education of children in or at risk of child labour in cotton production areas through accelerated schooling programmes to reintegrate mainstream schools.
• Provide vocational and OSH trainings for youth and women to access decent work opportunities in the cotton, textile and garment value chains and adopt safe work practices.
• Strengthen livelihoods of vulnerable families through training on new income generating activities.
• Raise awareness of key stakeholders, target communities and the general public on child and forced labour.
• Develop gender-responsive community-based multi-stakeholder monitoring and remedial mechanisms to combat child labour and forced labour.
• Provide capacity building of local governments, labour inspectors, employers’ and workers’ organizations.
• Support the revision and implementation of policy, legal and regulatory frameworks at federal and provincial levels in line with the International Labour Standards.
• Conduct quantitative and qualitative research on child labour, forced labour and other fundamental principles and rights at work in the national cotton, textile and garment value chains to complement the knowledge base.
• Federal Ministry of Overseas Pakistanis and Human Resource Development; Ministry of National Food Security and Research; Provincial Labour and Agriculture Departments
• Employers’ organizations: Employers Federation of Pakistan (EFP)
• Workers’ organizations: Pakistan Cotton Ginner's Association (PCGA); Pakistan National Textile Leather Garments General Workers Federation (PNTLGGWF); Pakistan Workers’ Federation (PWF).
• Pakistan Buyers’ Forum
• Civil society organizations and the media

Target beneficiaries

Children and their families working at any level of the cotton, garment and textile production chains; victims of forced labour and workers at risk of forced labour; relevant federal and provincial ministries and governmental departments; employers’ and workers’ organizations; enterprises, and media.

Project launch

Clear Cotton project seeks halt to child labour in West Africa and Pakistan

Elimination of child and forced labour

Stakeholders committed to promote fundamental principles and rights at work in Pakistan’s cotton, textile and garment value chains

Promoting fundamental principles and rights at work among cotton growing communities in Pakistan

National workshop on fundamental principles and rights at work and occupational safety & health in the cotton supply chain

Cotton picking women and adolescent girls of Southern Punjab sensitized on child labour, forced labour and OSH

Music competition launched to raise awareness of child labour

Capacity building of cotton communities on child labour, forced labour and occupational health and safety

Preventing children from pesticides – visual facilitator’s guide contextualized to Pakistan

Child labour in time of COVID

Combating child labour in times of COVID-19: the example of the CLEAR Cotton project

Child Labour

African musicians win Music Against Child Labour Competition

The CLEAR Cotton project offers education opportunities as an alternative to child labour in the cotton fields

Training of Trainers’ on Supporting Children’s Rights through Education, the Arts and the Media successfully concluded

Partners and initiatives

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

European Commission

ILO Office in Pakistan

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The Fashion Supply Chain Is Still High Risk for Child Labour

LONDON — Progress tackling child labour in global supply chains has stalled, according to a report published Thursday, with the problem still a major risk in countries that serve as fashion's most important manufacturing hubs.

Verisk Maplecroft’s annual Child Labour Index found that China, India, Bangladesh, Vietnam and Cambodia have registered no tangible improvement in the risk consultancy’s ranking of 198 countries since 2016. The index is designed to allow companies to identify the areas in their supply chain where they are most likely to risk falling foul of efforts to prevent child labour. It’s based on analysis of the frequency and severity of violations, countries’ adoption of laws and international treaties, and their ability and will to enforce them.

Source: Verisk Maplecroft

The fashion industry has struggled for years to tackle child labour and modern slavery within its supply chain, which remains complex and opaque. Many companies have made progress, tightening their ethical standards and conducting more frequent and rigorous factory audits. But problems persist, particularly further down the supply chain, where many companies have little visibility.

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Production of raw materials like cotton and silk are a particular risk for brands. Few retailers are able to trace the origin of the material they use back to the farm, making it difficult to monitor. At the same time, agriculture is one of the highest-risk sectors for child labour.

For instance, India — the world’s leading producer of cotton and second-largest producer of silk — is considered an extreme risk for child labour in the production of both commodities, according to Verisk Maplecroft. In fact, six of the eight cotton producers the consultancy scores for child labour risk are considered high-risk or greater. The US and Australia are the only countries where widespread, direct evidence of violations were not present, it said.

Other key materials used by the industry are also considered high or extreme risk, including cashmere from Mongolia and rubber produced in Indonesia, Malaysia and Thailand, Verisk Maplecroft found. The only natural material commonly used by the industry that does not have widespread links to child labour is wool, it said.

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• Verisk Maplecroft
• London, United Kingdom

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Child Labour in the Fashion Industry: Is It Still a Thing?

25 January 2023 • Giada Nizzoli

That cotton t-shirt you bought for £2 from a fast fashion brand? It’s fairly likely that child labour was involved in its production.

We’d all like to think that child labour in the fashion industry is a thing of the past. Sadly, that’s not the case, and most of us have been supporting it without knowing.  

What is “child labour” in the fashion industry?

Child labour refers to the exploitation of children through work that:

• Deprives them of their childhood
• Is mentally and/or physically harmful
• Interferes with school attendance

Child labour in fashion can happen at any stage of the supply chain , from harvesting resources to spinning yarn and putting the actual garments together.

Cotton production, however, tends to be the most likely, since 71% of all child labour is found in agriculture .

But is child labour in fashion still a thing nowadays?

Photo credit: Adam Cohn

Yes, child labour in fashion is still a thing. Even though it’s forbidden by law in most countries, it continues to be a problem, especially in developing areas.

It’s not a coincidence that those are exactly the countries from which most fast fashion brands outsource their garments.

And, as if it weren’t heartbreaking enough that child labour in fashion still exist, it’s been rising, too. It declined by 30% between 2000 and 2012 , but then the number of children in child labour rose by 8.4 million (reaching 160 million worldwide) within 4 years. 

The COVID-19 pandemic was amongst the main factors, from schools being closed to the economic challenges it presented. 

Why is there child labour in fast fashion?

Sadly, cheap and unregulated child labour is especially still a thing in fast fashion because it helps keep the costs so low.

Some of the reasons that maintain child labour in the fashion supply chain are:

• Many of its stages involve low-skilled tasks
• Some employers prefer hiring children for cotton picking because their smaller fingers are less likely to damage the crop 
• Children are considered more obedient, and they’re often lured in with fake promises
• At least 29.8 millions of people are kept in modern slavery conditions : sometimes, when the adults in a family can’t survive on their wages alone, they feel like they have no other choice than to bring their children into slave labour in fashion

What you can do about child labour in the fashion industry as a conscious consumer

Of course, it’s an extremely difficult situation, and nobody can solve it overnight. However, here are some starting points to fight against child labour in fashion:

• Educate yourself and share your knowledge. Maybe, before reading this article, you didn’t know that many fast fashion clothing hid child labour. Being aware of it is already a great first step!
• If you can, consider donating to organisations actively working to tackle child labour, like Anti-Slavery International
• Demand transparency and avoid fashion brands that don’t tell you who made their clothes. Remember: if a garment is so cheap that it sounds too good to be true, it usually hides a dreadful price
• Support ethical and transparent fashion brands
• Choose organic cotton over cotton
• Look for third-party certifications like Fair Trade International , Better Cotton Initiative , or Fair Wear Association . On Project Cece , you can use them as filters to browse the clothing range of hundreds of fairtrade fashion brands!

Overall, we believe that being vocal and voting with our money are some of the best things we can do to fight child labour in the fashion industry (and beyond). 

Just because we can’t see it, it doesn’t mean it's no longer there!

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Tackling child labour in the fashion industry - why the best firms have the most to lose

Posted in: Business and society , Consumers , Human rights , Modern slavery , Policy , Supply chains

New research suggests that firms with a good reputation for ethical sourcing in the fashion industry are judged more harshly than their peers when child labour is discovered in their supply chain .  Meggan   Caddey , a final year PhD student, and Johanne Grosvold and Stephen Pavelin , all from the Centre for Business, Organisations and Society at the University of Bath, explain their findings.

Child labour remains a major societal challenge. The International Labour Organization (ILO) estimates that 168 million children are involved in child labour today, which the United Nations (UN) defines  as “ work for which the child is either too young – work done below the required minimum age – or work which, because of its detrimental nature or conditions, is altogether considered unacceptable for children and is prohibited ”. Many of these children work in the garment and fashion apparel industry.

The drive for child labour

According to the organisation Stop Child Labour , fast fashion has resulted in high demand for children who are willing to work for very low pay and in dangerous conditions. Some have suggested that their employment is tantamount to modern day slavery . Some of our best known high street brands including Adidas , H&M  and Nike have relied on manufacturers who have subsequently been exposed as using children to work in unsafe conditions.

Increasingly, global firms are recognising that failure to address the challenge of child labour can seriously impact on their corporate reputation . However fashion supply chains are complex, relying on numerous suppliers, sub suppliers and manufacturers. According to H&M’s Head of Sustainability Helena Helmersson, these supply chain networks are so complex that “ it is impossible to be in full control ”.

Corporate responsibility and corporate reputation

Prior research indicates that, by going above and beyond the basic requirements for fulfilling their corporate social responsibilities, proactive firms can engender goodwill that acts as an insurance against potential damage to their reputation.  The theory goes that if news of wrongdoing emerges from the supply chain of such a proactive firm, its reputation will suffer less because people will give it the benefit of the doubt - 'surely, this good firm must not be to blame'. Other firms that have no such record of exemplary behaviour would be more readily blamed and, as a result, their reputations would suffer more. According to this theory, H&M would suffer less of a reputational impact if child labour was uncovered in its supply chain, as it is  now working strategically to become the most ethical fashion chain on the high street . We set out to test this theory in relation to supply chains in the apparel industry.

Research findings

Our study used an  experimental vignette method . This involved presenting study participants with carefully constructed, lifelike scenarios, to evaluate their attitudes, opinions and views of a firm’s actions regarding child labour in the fashion supply chain. Over 800 participants took part in our study, and our initial results are surprising. We found that a firm that had taken steps to address child labour and unsafe working conditions in its supply chain enjoyed a better reputation than a firm that had not. However, when something went wrong, people judged these firms more harshly than they did the firms that had previously behaved less responsibly. So, while firms that are more socially responsible tend to benefit from an improved reputation, such goodwill is accompanied by greater reputational risks - specifically, such a firm experiences greater harm to its reputation if unsafe labour practices are subsequently discovered in its supply chain.

Our findings imply that it is in firms’ interests to address unsafe practices in their supply chains, as doing so results in a better corporate reputation. However, our results also suggest that steps taken to stamp out child labour and poor working conditions tend to strengthen the imperative for a firm to maintain a consistent commitment to responsible sourcing. If they don’t, they risk particularly stringent reputational punishment. In effect, this can create something of a virtuous cycle, which gives momentum to firm's steps towards stamping out child labour and unsafe working conditions. Careful reputation management implies that firms setting high standards must continue to live up to them.

The business case for doing good

There is an increased policy emphasis from both governments and NGOs to reduce the use of child labour and unsafe working conditions in the supply chain. There is also evidence that firms are increasingly taking the problem of child labour seriously, with some estimates suggesting that reliance on child labour was reduced by 30% from 2002-2012 . As our research shows, tackling this issue can bring benefits for both children and firms.

We provide distinctive new evidence that guides us towards a more detailed understanding of the business case for being good and doing good . By illustrating the reputational benefits of sustainable supply chain practices, our research findings can help motivate firms not already on board, and inspire those who have already taken action to sustain and expand their efforts. This may in turn encourage them to sign up to independent initiatives such as   GoodWeave , which awards companies the right to carry the GoodWeave label if they can show that no child labour or bonded labour was used in the production of their goods. With 11% of the world’s children still sacrificing school in order to work, this is no time for business to be complacent.

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The Hidden Workforce: A study on child labour in the garment industry in Delhi

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Save the Children India

Child labour in the garment industry is one of the rapidly growing unorganised workforces in cities such as the National Capital Territory of Delhi (NCTD), also known as the hub of garment export industry in India. Save the Children’s experience of working on child labour in the garment industry has shed light on the emerging phenomenon of informalisation under manufacturing garments units, owing to sub-contracting and outsourcing of work. In addition, poor regulatory framework of the outsourced work has led to children being employed for many economic activities (Watson & Olsen, 2011). Thus, as part of Save the Children’s on-going intervention on protecting the rights of children working in the garment industry in Delhi, this research study has been undertaken. The core objectives of the study have been to:

• Estimate the number of children working in the garment industry in Delhi
• Understand the working and living conditions of children in the garment industry in Delhi
• Understand the nature of garment industry and its supply chain in Delhi and also to analyse the reasons of child labour perpetuating in the supply chain of the industry
• Suggest a remedial model for withdrawing children from labour in garment industry

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In need of a sustainable and just fashion industry: identifying challenges and opportunities through a systematic literature review in a Global North/Global South perspective

• Open access
• Published: 08 August 2024
• Volume 5 , article number  186 , ( 2024 )

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• Francesca Bonelli 1 ,
• Rocco Caferra 1 &
• Piergiuseppe Morone 1  

Since the late twentieth century, the global fashion industry has been increasingly embracing the business model known as fast fashion. Characterised by rapid production cycles, fleeting trends, low-cost garments and large-scale production, fast fashion seems to meet consumer demand for affordable and trendy clothing. However, its environmental impact as a major polluter poses significant challenges to sustainability and circularity initiatives. This article presents the results of a systematic literature review, exploring the unsustainable consequences of fast fashion, focusing on both demand and supply side, from a geographical perspective. Using a Global North–Global South framework, it explores differences in socio-economic structures, consumption and production patterns, access to resources and environmental impacts. The analysis suggests that a fair and equitable transition towards a sustainable and circular fashion industry will require the links between business, society and nature to be reconsidered, to avoid perpetuating the inequalities associated with the global linear capitalist economy. The findings highlight the importance of both markets and institutions in sustainable growth. In the Global North, the most frequently discussed topics relate to investment and research and development with respect to new technologies or system innovations often with the support of well-structured political guidance. Conversely, in the Global sustainable initiatives tend to be scattered, country-specific and intricately tied to particular socio-economic and cultural contexts.

Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

1 Introduction

As Payne outlines [ 1 ], fashion is both an industrial and a cultural phenomenon that is deeply intertwined with the converging environmental, social and economic challenges of the twenty-first century. Following World War II, when production shifted from the home or small workshops to factories orientated towards mass production, fashion became one of the world’s largest industries. Today, it is a major global and globalised industry, characterised by ‘low predictability, high impulse purchase, shorter life cycle, and high volatility of market demand’ [ 2 ].

The term ‘fast fashion’ was coined in the 1990s, when the Spanish brand Zara first opened a store in New York and quickly emerged as a standout and highly imitable model of efficiency and speed.

The rise of fast fashion was primarily driven by changes in consumer behaviour and increased fashion consciousness, coupled with the transition of mass-production globalised retailers from a production—to a market-centric approach [ 3 ]. Direct engagement between retailers and consumers was essential for maintaining the industry pace. In particular, the late 1990s saw a surge in demand for fashion, fuelled by the popularity of fashion shows and the shift to shopping as a form of entertainment [ 4 ]. Mass-production retailers such as Zara, H&M, UNIQLO, GAP and Primark Forever 21 and Topshop expanded rapidly, due to globalisation, and met growing demand by swiftly delivering ‘high fashion at a low price’, within a ‘throw-away market’ paradigm [ 3 , 5 ]. Vertical integration was adopted to reduce production times and promote flexibility, collaboration and communication in accordance with more complex global supply chains [ 6 ]. The late 1990s also marked the advent of e-commerce, with fast fashion retailers such as H&M entering the digital arena [ 4 ]. E-commerce furthered the globalisation and democratisation of fast fashion, making products and services more accessible across diverse and international markets [ 7 ]. Retailers leveraged e-commerce to reduce purchasing and supply management costs, improve communication strategies and enhance competitiveness through innovation. For consumers, e-commerce simplified purchasing decisions, leading to time and cost savings [ 8 ]. The 2020 pandemic, resulting in a significant economic downturn for fashion companies [ 9 ], accelerated the adoption of e-commerce as a crucial business solution and primary source of market innovation [ 10 ]. Chinese fashion retailers such as Temu and Shein pushed this model a step further, with nearly exclusive online sales.

Notwithstanding the advantages of this new business model, it also presented significant disadvantages. In particular, the technological innovations, GDP growth, globalisation and shifts in retail markets that have arisen as a result of fast fashion have introduced several adverse environmental and ecological impacts [ 11 ]. Considering climate change, the fashion industry is accountable for 8–10% of global greenhouse gas emissions –a figure projected to increase by 60% by 2030, according to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change [ 12 ]. The UNEP has also blamed fast fashion for triggering the ‘triple planetary crisis’ [ 6 ]. In more detail, it is responsible for the consumption of vast quantities of raw materials, including farmland and fossil fuels (especially oil), and the conversion of plastic fibres [ 13 ]. Other impacts relate to water depletion and pollution. For instance, the extensive use of chemical compounds and the incineration of synthetic plastic fibres (i.e., polyester, nylon, acrylic), make fashion the second-largest contributor to water pollution after agriculture [ 14 ].

Fast fashion’s linear model of production shows a contrasting dynamic when viewed from a Global North–Global South perspective. Derived from the ‘Third World’ model introduced by the United Nations in the 1940s, the terms ‘Global North’ and ‘Global South’ describe regions that are socio-economically and politically opposed [ 15 ]. The Global South encompasses economically unstable and underdeveloped countries characterised by a low average per capita income, high disparity in living standards and limited access to resources (leading to a heavy reliance on primary product exports). Conversely, the Global North encompasses countries with a high average per capita income, advanced technology and infrastructure, and macroeconomic and political stability [ 15 , 16 , 17 ]. Footnote 1 These differences stem from a global capitalist economy that relies on the ‘economy-first model of development’. The integration of the Global South (formerly referred to as the Third World) into this model began in the 1950s, with the emergence of decolonisation movements. However, the enduring social and economic effects of colonialism, coupled with continuous dependency on former colonial ties and development strategies emulating the virtuous model of developed countries according to the path-dependency principle, have led to the perpetuation and sharpening of inequalities in global governance, economic development and international relations [ 18 , 19 , 20 , 21 ]. As highlighted by Hurrell and Kingsbury (1992) [ 22 ], this imbalance has become a significant source of conflict between the Global North and the Global South, especially concerning the environment. The COP27 (2022) stands as a stark example of the concerns expressed by the Global South regarding the unequal distribution of responsibilities and burdens in climate change mitigation efforts. Such political and socio-ecological inequalities also contribute to shaping production-consumption patterns [ 23 ].

These considerations extend to the global fashion industry, representing a crucial player in the global economy whose hazardous make-take-waste paradigm yields cumulative negative effects that are unevenly distributed across world regions.

Fast fashion’s high pace of overproduction and ‘purchase-discard’ consumption model result in an abundance of unwanted clothes, contributing to a significant mass of textile waste [ 24 ]. According to the US Environmental Protection Agency, the average American consumer generates 82 pounds of textile waste each year [ 25 ].

To address the issue of overproduction, efforts have been made to implement circular economic principles, resulting in a proliferation of global exports of second-hand clothing from the Global North to the Global South [ 24 , 26 ]. However, this practice of reuse, known as the ‘international second-hand clothing trade’ [ 27 ], represents the human tendency to merely ‘export or displace ecological problems, rather than truly solve them’ [ 28 ]. In fact, the flow of international second-hand clothing from the affluent Global North to the developing Global South constitutes a form of pollution shifting or waste dumping, potentially inflicting damage on the receiving nations. Evidence of this phenomenon lies in the qualitative difference in donated garments between international markets: high-quality garments are acquired by charities or companies in the Global North and resold locally, while medium-quality garments are exported to Eastern European retail shops and low-quality items find their way to Africa, Asia and South America [ 29 , 30 ]. Indeed, much of the used clothing that is exported from the Global North to the Global South lacks market value and ends up as waste in water streams, landfills, oceans or incinerators. This troubling issue was reported by ‘Trashion’ [ 31 ], which discovered that approximately 50% of the 600,000 kg of used clothing exported by Belgium to Kenya in 2021 was waste that could be neither resold or recycled.

Furthermore, challenges may arise even when high-quality clothes are traded in Global South markets. The volume and low prices of exported clothing, facilitated by political agreements on the trade of used clothing (i.e., the new post-Cotonou agreement, the ‘Everything but Arms’ initiative), hinder the growth of local textile industries. Rather than promoting employment opportunities, local product consumption and economic development, this fosters a heavy reliance on the Global North and contributes to the marginalisation of residents in the poorest countries [ 32 , 33 ].

The extensive asymmetries in the fast fashion industry between the Global North and the Global South, particularly in terms of sourcing and the generation and disposal of waste, hinder sustainable environmental and economic development and the transition towards a circular economic model [ 34 ]. Therefore, to prevent the perpetuation of colonialist-like power dynamics (as evident in the global waste trade often referred to as ‘ecological imperialism’ [ 35 ]), discussions of sustainable development and circularity must prioritise justice and address inequalities, to meet diverse needs and visions across the globe [ 34 , 36 ]. Echoing Boenhhert’s (2015) [ 37 ] perspective on the circular economy as a comprehensive approach to redesigning economic and social relations, a rebalancing of relations between the Global North and the Global South cannot overlook power dynamics. These dynamics are evident in not only the economic imperative to reduce and improve the quality of production and consumption, but also the circular economy's endeavour to ‘close the loop’, merging economic growth with sustainability [ 38 ].

The present analysis delves into the unequally distributed environmental impacts associated with the fast fashion industry, considering market interactions between consumers (i.e., demand side) and producers (i.e., supply side). Furthermore, it situates these interactions within the broader context of Global North–Global South power dynamics, as reflected in the economy-first model of development. The analysis not only uncovers the unsustainable and geographically diverse impacts of fast fashion, but it also sheds light on emerging strategies and initiatives in the discourse on fashion and sustainability. Within this context, the Global North and the Global South are considered two poles in which exchanges (or a lack thereof) of initiatives, knowledge and strategies may occur among consumers and producers.

In the following section (Sect.  2 ), we present our research questions and explain our methodological choice of a systematic literature review (SLR). We also outline the protocol used to answer our research questions, which resulted in the creation of analytical clusters. Section  3 delves into the qualitative findings of the SLR, dedicating specific subsections to the key narratives that emerged from the cluster analysis. Section  4 provides a thorough discussion of the results obtained, drawing insights for the multilevel gap between the Global North and the Global South. Finally, Sect.  5 presents concluding remarks regarding the shaping of a future discourse aimed at achieving a globally equitable and sustainable fashion industry, encompassing both production and consumption.

2 Research question

In the present study, we analysed the phenomenon of fast fashion through two distinct yet complementary lenses: (i) consumer and producer perspectives, rooted in (ii) a macro geographical focus distinguishing between the Global North and the Global South. Starting with a review of the literature, our exploration mainly centred on the environmental impact and unsustainability of the growing fast fashion industry, emphasising regional disparities. The research question explored both production and consumption, addressing the widening gap between the Global North and the Global South fostered by the fast fashion industry. Specifically, the literature review aimed at answering the following questions:

How does the empirical divide between the Global North and the Global South manifest in the economic literature on fast fashion, particularly in analyses of consumers and producers?

Are producers from the Global North and the Global South concerned about the unsustainable environmental impacts of fast fashion? Are they making efforts to transition their businesses towards more circular models? What factors influence consumer awareness, intentions and behaviours towards fast fashion? Are there notable differences or similarities between the Global North and the Global South regarding these aspects? Are there ongoing initiatives promoting sustainable consumption patterns?

What does the revised literature reveal about the role of globally adopting circular consumption and production practices in the fashion industry in bridging the Global North–Global South divide?

2.1 Methodology

The core of the qualitative-quantitative analysis was an SLR. The SLR methodology, as outlined by Moher et al. [ 39 ], relies on a ‘clearly formulated question that uses systematic and explicit methods to identify, select, and critically appraise relevant research, and to collect and analyse data from the studies that are included in the review’ [ 39 ]. This method is particularly useful for revealing the current state of the art on a topic and identifying gaps and areas requiring further research [ 40 ]. Given the complexity and novelty of the selected topic, we deemed an SLR most suitable for addressing our research questions, as it would allow us to determine a literary and bibliographic framework within which to identify relevant emerging narratives. Papers were identified following the PRISMA protocol, which outlines a specific flow of information across four research stages.

The flow diagram depicted in Fig.  1 outlines the methodological steps (i.e., identification, screening, eligibility, inclusion) [ 20 ] of the SLR. These steps, starting with identification, enabled us to select relevant publications to address our research questions.

Systematic review flow diagram

2.2 Identification

The identification process relied on the electronic database of scholarly publications Scopus, which allowed us to search across titles, abstracts and keywords in the literature. After deeming search terms such as ‘fast fashion AND Global North AND Global South’ too narrow in scope, and terms such as ‘fast fashion AND global value chain’ too broad, we ultimately selected the keyword search ‘fast fashion AND sustainability’.

The research spanned the years 2009–2023, with 2023 chosen as the end date in order to include the most recent studies. However, due to the temporal limitations of the 2023 dataset, for which collection ceased in March of that year, its representativeness in the graph is inherently limited. The year 2009 was chosen as the starting point as it marked the onset of the effects of the first globalisation crisis (beginning in October 2008), bringing to light the uneven development of the economy, the consequences of sourcing goods and services globally and the flow of capital [ 41 ]. Figure  2 depicts the annual growth in fast fashion and sustainability publications over the study period.

Annual scientific production, 2009–2023

Ultimately, our search resulted in a set of 293 publications, which we transferred to a Microsoft Excel file for the purposes of manual screening.

2.3 Screening

Screening and selection were performed manually, through a title and abstract review of the 293 papers. Eighty-one papers were excluded on the basis of their irrelevance to the subject matter. Specifically, to answer our research question and narrow the scope of the review our focus was on economic publications, addressing the impact of the fast fashion linear versus circular production and consumption model, and centred on: consumer awareness and/or behaviour and/or preferences, producer/retailer/brand marketing strategies and/or circular business models, and the interaction between consumers and producers. Systematic reviews were also included, as these offered an overview of the publishing landscape [ 42 , 43 ].

2.4 Eligibility

Each of the remaining 212 papers were assessed for eligibility, with the aim of rooting the SLR within Global North–South dynamics. Only those publications that had a clear geographical focus, i.e., context set in either Global South or Global North countries, or in a comparative approach were included. Papers that addressed mere consumers’/producers’ trends or advancement patterns and strategies towards sustainability, without discerning differences between the Global North and the Global South, or without rooting their analysis in a certain geographical context were excluded.

A set of 117 eligible papers was identified, comprised of publications focused on: (i) consumers, producers, or consumers and producers; and (ii) the Global North, the Global South or a Global North–Global South comparison.

The dataset was further sorted according to countries’ unique contributions to the scientific literature on fast fashion and sustainability, providing an overview of the distribution of geographical areas present in our identified publication set. The 117 research articles originated from 37 countries, representing both the Global North and the Global South. However, as Fig.  3 shows, certain countries contributed more significantly, as indicated by the dark blue colour (e.g., the UK with 32 articles; the US with 25; China with 14; South Korea with 9; Australia with 8; Brazil with 7), while the contribution of other countries was less significant (e.g., Japan with 3 articles, Ecuador with 2; Chile, Saudi Arabia, Tanzania, the Philippines, Croatia, Ireland and the Czech Republic with 1).

World map showing countries’ unique contributions to the scientific literature on fast fashion and sustainability

2.5 Inclusion

The 117 papers were categorised into four clusters, according to their focus: (i) consumers in the Global North, (ii) producers in the Global North, (iii) consumers in the Global South and (iv) producers in the Global South. These analytical clusters were not created using algorithms or inferential methods, but established qualitatively, with the results interpreted at two levels: (i) market dynamics and interactions (consumers and/or producers; (ii) geographical dynamics and interactions (i.e., Global North and/or Global South). Some papers were assigned to more than one of the abovementioned clusters.

Subsequently, the abstract of each paper was read in order to identify emerging narrative for each cluster of articles.

The following section reports the findings from the qualitative analysis of the 117 identified papers, organised according to each conceptual cluster. The first subsection reports the narratives of papers concerning the Global North and consumers (n = 28 publications from 2014–2023). The second subsection describes the narratives of papers discussing the Global North and producers (n = 24 publications from 2009–2023). Subsections 3 and 4 analyse Global South narratives. Section  3 focuses on consumers (n = 11 publications from 2017–2022) and Sect.  4 focuses on producers (n = 11 publications from 2017–2021).

The final subsection explores the narratives of papers pertaining to more than one of the abovementioned clusters. The content of these papers determined five further clusters of analysis: (i) the Global North and producers and consumers (n = 15 from 2016–2023); (ii) the Global South and producers and consumers (n = 5 publications from 2016–2022); (iii) the Global North versus the Global South and consumers (n = 3 from 2011–2022; (iv) the Global North versus the Global South and producers (n = 14 publications from 2016–2022); and (v) the Global North versus the Global South and consumers and producers (n = 6 from 2018–2022).

Figure  4 depicts the distribution of articles among the conceptual clusters, showing the frequency of articles per cluster.

Distribution of articles in each conceptual cluster

Figure  5 provides a visually concise summary of the SLR findings that shall be reported and discussed in the following sections. The vertical axis depicts upstream and downstream issues, while the horizontal axis represents the Global North and the Global South. Within each quadrant, the identified narratives are displayed. The upper left quadrant focuses on Global North consumer narratives, while the upper right quadrant represents the Global South consumer cluster. The lower left quadrant reflects Global North producer narratives, and the lower right quadrant pertains to Global South producers. The axes delineate overlapping narratives. The vertical axis (i.e., upstream and downstream) contains cross-cutting narratives for consumers (i.e., upstream) and producers (i.e., downstream), for both the Global North (up) and Global South (down). The horizontal axis (Global North and Global South) represents narratives cross-cutting the producer and consumer categories in the Global North (left) and Global South (right). The circle in the centre regroups the narratives encompassing all four quadrants: the Global North, the Global South, consumers and producers.

Emerging narratives grouped by conceptual cluster

3.1 Global North and consumers

The most frequent narrative in this category explored socio-cognitive aspects of consumer behaviour within the framework of the rational economic agent. Terms such as 'consciousness’, ‘knowledge’, ‘cognition’, ‘intentions’, ‘attitude’ and ‘behaviour’ frequently underscored the significance of the socio-cognitive sphere in matters of consumer preference. The central question usually revolved around how ‘consumers’ level of environmental consciousness impacts their purchase decisions and consumption behaviour’ [ 44 ], investigating potential value-action gaps or intention-behaviour gaps.

Papers [ 45 , 46 , 47 , 48 , 49 , 50 ] often analysed empirical data obtained through interviews, surveys and consumer questionnaires. These methods were applied not only to determine consumer preferences, but also explored existing knowledge and attitudes, providing empirical evidence to support initiatives to promote more environmentally friendly purchasing behaviors. Specifically, considering the environmental risks associated with the fast fashion industry, the focus on raising consumer consciousness was found to align with the theme of responsible consumption within a circular bioeconomy perspective. However, external factors (e.g., stressful events such as COVID-19) can impact consumer behaviour, encouraging impulsive buying [ 49 ]. The data indicated a consumer preference for sustainable fashion items, while revealing a lack of accurate and transparent knowledge among consumers about all stages of the supply chain [ 51 ]. Additionally, some papers found that consumer preferences did not automatically translate into purchasing behaviour, as consumer willingness to pay also played a key role in determining such decisions, alongside with cognitive and behavioural factors [ 45 , 52 ]. Despite this complexity, consumers were found to exhibit a willingness to pay higher prices for sustainable products, suggesting a potential for sustained market volume [ 50 ].

The studies in this group also explored consumers’ demographic characteristics, focusing particularly on generational cohort and gender. Concerning generational cohort, the papers primarily centred on Generation X, whose members (i.e., millennials) are most exposed to the intention-behaviour gap: while overconsuming fast fashion, they are also increasingly sensitive to sustainability issues [ 53 ]. Thus, education about sustainable production and responsible consumerism in the clothing industry was identified as a key factor for this cohort, as highlighted by a case study about an educational project conducted in Germany [ 54 ]. With respect to gender, women were identified as more ‘careful’ about their responsible consumption, showing a preference for slow fashion apparel and garments [ 45 , 51 ], or at least appearing ‘more knowledgeable about this topic than men’ [ 55 ].

Within the analysis of consumer purchasing choices, slow fashion also emerged as an intriguing research trend [ 52 ]. Some papers presented interesting case studies. For instance, Holgar [ 56 ] used wardrobe research to empirically test consumers’ everyday clothing practices, and Polajnar and Šrimpf Vendramin explored textile waste management among Ljubljana residents and the waste-management network in Slovenia [ 57 ].

3.2 Global North and producers

The most explored narrative in this cluster pertained to the identification of solutions and alternatives concerning circular business models, sustainability, transparent global value chains, and waste and emission reductions, aimed at a paradigm shift in the fashion industry towards more conscientious and circular business practices. For instance, rethinking production modes and supply chains could occur by embracing a multi-echelon closed-loop supply chain (CLSC) [ 58 ]. Such an approach would aim at maintaining market competitiveness while promoting sustainable development [ 58 ]. Studies analysed major global fashion companies, in—both the luxury and mass market sectors. Transformation was recognised as necessary for meeting evolving consumer demands (characterised by a growing sensitivity to environmentally friendly products), to comply with supranational and international strategies (e.g., the UN Fashion Charter and the Fashion Pact, the EU Strategy for Sustainable and Circular Textiles) and to participate in sustainability initiatives (e.g., European Textile Network) [ 59 , 60 , 61 , 62 ].

In contrast, practices such as ‘greenwashing’ and ‘greenhushing’ were recognised as limiting fashion firms' sustainable production opportunities and market competitiveness, as well as positive consumers perception towards them. Therefore, to achieve a truly circular approach, these practices must be replaced by genuine green marketing strategies [ 63 , 64 , 65 ]. Strategies such as waste management, recycling, by-products reduction, the use of green technologies, and rental platforms were recommended. For instance, rental platforms in Canada were found to be positively linked to sustainable fashion [ 66 ]. To reverse the make-take-waste paradigm, the Swedish fashion industry adopted circular economy principles in its supply chain [ 67 ]. Additionally, the German second-hand clothing industry used digitalisation to establish a competitive business model [ 68 ]. Given the need to close the loop of the linear fashion scheme, new processes and transaction schemes were also explored. The transition towards a slow-fashion production paradigm was recognized to entail a radical redefinition of value propositions, emphasising craftsmanship, nature and localism [ 60 , 69 ], guided by transparent business practices and commercial sustainability [ 70 ], following the 3Rs (i.e., reduce, reuse, recycle) [ 71 ]. This aligns with the approach developed by the French national program for managing post-consumer textiles and clothing, which, promoted innovation in recycling practices through extended producer responsibility policies [ 72 ].

Other papers focused on specific business trends, such as those observed in the luxury fashion sector, which has embraced ethical and sustainable measures prioritizing distinction and recycling [ 73 , 74 ]. Moreover, the emerging ‘eco-chic’ trend highlights that long-lasting and environmentally friendly garments are not restricted to luxury brands, but may also be produced by mass retailers [ 75 ].

3.3 Global South and consumers

The environmental challenges and repercussions of the fast fashion industry are located and widespread throughout the Global South. It is in this region that Western companies typically concentrate their fast fashion production processes and discard their used clothing. These issues were addressed from the perspective of consumers in this region, analysing their concerns and engagement. One effective strategy highlighted for mitigating the negative impacts of excessive clothing production and disposal was the establishment of a new sustainable consumption model to prolong product life cycles. Such models might be achieved through the promotion of reuse, recycling and resale activities among consumers, which have already gained traction within the second-hand clothing market. In Africa, for instance, many individuals were found to wear second-hand garments exported from the Global North [ 76 ]. Additionally, in the Global South, the embrace of authentic elements inherent to small village settings and local communities (i.e., nature, history, culture, traditions) was recognised as a viable approach to combatting consumerism and fostering sustainable practices [ 77 , 78 ], highlighting a key difference from the narratives focused on the Global North. In the context of the Global North and consumers, the acknowledgment of sustainability practices influenced by cultural collectivist values was observed within a specific community with ties to the Global South: African Americans, whose heritage is marked by specific cultural values contributing to these practices [ 79 ].

Another avenue for minimising the environmental impact of the clothing industry while extending garment lifetimes was identified as the promotion of sustainable purchasing behaviours and intentions [ 80 , 81 , 82 ]. In this regard, slow fashion and eco-fashion emerged as promising approaches. These trends encourage environmentally conscious and responsible consumers by promoting greater product knowledge, active involvement in the clothing creation and design process, and the adoption of circular textile products [ 80 , 81 , 82 ]. Ultimately, the adoption of these paradigms may also enhance consumer well-being.

3.4 Global South and producers

The first key narrative in this category surrounded the unethical working conditions and sourcing practices within the fast fashion industry. Countries in this region bear the most significant socio-economic consequences of the fashion value chain, as they not only receive the majority of global textile waste, but they also host the most resource-intensive manufacturing processes, as a result of outsourcing [ 83 ]. Thus, economic and environmental factors assume greater significance.

The transition towards sustainable business models in the Global South may be hindered by information deficiency. While enterprises in the Global South were found to make significant effort to comply with corporate social responsibility (CSR) models [ 84 ], a comparative analysis among young designers based in China, India, Bangladesh and Pakistan showed that producers in the Global South often lack information about sustainability practices and how to implement them [ 85 ]. Interestingly, a significant disparity between the Global North and the Global South emerged in the papers, showing that Generation X individuals in the Global North tend to be notably concerned about sustainability issues, while the same is not true for their counterparts in the Global South.

As outlined in the preceding subsection, culture and perceptions play important roles, also among producers. For instance, Remu Apparel, a slow fashion company in Ecuador, promoted the adoption of slow fashion by reconceptualising traditional masculinity [ 86 ]. Filipino ukay-ukay culture (i.e., ‘digging up of piles of used clothes until finding a desirable item’ [ 87 ]) provides another intriguing example of the importance of the cultural factor.

To foster sustainable growth, producers must focus on the developing circular economic practices in Global South markets. Given the immense scale of some of these markets, (e.g., the textile and garment industry in Brazil [ 88 , 89 ] and China [ 90 ]) businesses must develop a strategic vision for sustainable economic growth.

3.5 Overlapping narratives

Various factors intersect with the categories of consumers and producers in the fashion industry. Through their primary activities of (over)consumption and (over)production, both contribute significantly to environmental degradation, via the generation of waste and the depletion of raw materials, respectively.

In papers examining consumer–producer dynamics in the Global North, a central narrative revolved around the development of a holistic circular business model for fashion, to allow both producers and consumers to embrace the benefits of a circular economy within the fashion industry [ 91 ]. Initiatives such as the Dutch circular textile mission and the European Union-funded Horizon 2020 project TCBL (Textile and Clothing Business Labs) were recognised as an example of system innovations in this direction [ 92 , 93 ]. The simultaneous engagement of producers and consumers was stated to occur through bottom-up and top-down processes [ 94 ]. With respect to top-down processes, producers must prioritise the provision of transparent and easily understandable information to consumers [ 95 ], while developing products with clear sustainable attributes, in order to demonstrate their commitment to socio-environmental responsibility. Such an approach would not only enhance consumer loyalty and satisfaction, but it would also increase willingness to pay for sustainable product [ 96 , 97 ]. The brand ECOALF is exemplar in this regard, with a focus on sustainable fashion and effective communication strategies aimed at consumers [ 98 ]. Regarding bottom-up processes, papers described that local consumers should actively propose sustainable initiatives for local and/or global implementation [ 1 , 99 ]. In particular, social manufacturing, which involves consumers directly in the production process through do-it-yourself (DIY) and do-it-together (DIT) practices, was recognised as facilitating the transfer of environmental knowledge and promoting green innovations [ 100 ]. Additionally, unsuccessful aspects of consumer–producer interaction were considered, particularly with respect to textile waste management strategies and recycling technology. A case study comparing the UK and Korean recycling systems revealed the latter’s lesser preparedness to address textile waste streams [ 101 ]. Moreover, geographical location was found to play a relevant role, as Portugal produces more textile waste than Croatia, leading to a higher environmental impact [ 102 ].

Narratives considering consumer–producer interactions in the Global South underscored how the rise of fast fashion in emerging economies has created both sustainability concerns and opportunities. Economic agents in these regions were found to be positively supporting the concept of sustainable fashion and the idea of transformable garments; attitudes, subjective norms and perceptions, and again cultural factors, were considered influential factors in the adoption of sustainable behaviours, such as recycling activities or secondhand [ 103 , 104 , 105 ], even among distinct sectors, like secondhand luxury fashion [ 105 ]. Transparent and informative communication about sustainable practices was found to enhance consumer trust, foster positive feelings and mitigate perceptions of producer hypocrisy [ 106 , 107 ]. Despite acknowledging the room for improvement in sustainability practices, studies focused on producers and consumers in the Global South highlighted the substantial work required to effectively transform aspirations into feasible solutions. For example, a study in Brazil revealed consumer reluctance, even among those claiming environmental consciousness, to pay a premium for eco-friendly products [ 107 ]. Similarly, concerns about production costs, practicality, adaptability, and marketability were found on the production side [ 103 ].

Among the papers adopting a comparative geographical perspective (i.e., Global North vs. Global South) with respect to consumers, the analysis aimed at bridging the gap in consumer perceptions and behaviours across the different global regions. On the one hand, consumers from both the Global North and the Global South were found to be positively influenced by eco-fashion in their decision-making and behaviour [ 108 ]. However, a notable disparity persists between consumers in the Global North and those in the Global South regarding purchasing intentions, perceptions, and adoption of circular apparel behaviour, with consumers in the Global South facing more significant challenges in this regard [ 109 ]. However, similarities were also detected between consumers in different geographical regions, irrespective of their affiliation to the Global North or the Global South. Specifically, individuals residing in certain natural geographies (e.g., islands) tend to be more nature-friendly in comparison to residents in corresponding continental areas, as shown in a study comparing the residents of an island regions in the US and in Ecuador [ 110 ].

Papers comparing producers in the Global North with those in the Global South considered the uneven distribution of environmental, ecological and social consequences, recognising the greater impacts suffered by the weaker region (i.e., the Global South), due to the extensive use of petroleum-based fibres and the offshoring of production by fast fashion companies in the Global North. The papers showed that recent business strategies have begun to integrate social and sustainability aspects, emphasising the importance of transparent, circular business practices [ 111 , 112 ]. This shift was also recognised in Global North firms that have adopted social and environmental sustainability as a selection criterion for their sourcing locations [ 113 ] or relocating specific stages of the supply chain [ 114 ]. Transnational and multilevel perspectives and localized, cross-border initiatives aimed at tackling unequal ecological consequences (worldwide) are necessary [ 115 ]. These initiatives were thought to emerge when supply chains would cease to be organised solely around large retailers and brand-name firms in the Global North, and extend into the Global South. In this regard, the media could play a prominent role in the provision of transparent information aimed at establishing a sustainable global supply chain [ 116 ]. Feasible strategies were identified, including: (i) reusing and remanufacturing unwanted second-hand clothing by incorporating local craft and design, as seen among retailers and artisans in Tanzania and fashion remanufacturers and retailers in the UK [ 117 ]; and (ii) implementing effective sustainable supply chain management (SSCM) through investments in decarbonisation and energy infrastructure, engagement with suppliers and consumers, and the revaluation of product design standards [ 118 ].

In papers taking an all-encompassing approach, initial considerations regarding the fashion industry’s polluting production model, in terms of environmental degradation, are followed by more specific differences concerning ‘onshoring’ versus ‘offshoring’ dynamics: from textile waste to working conditions. These dynamics were investigated by using different research methods: LCA methods to compare global impacts [ 119 ], and systematic literature reviews [ 120 , 121 ] to highlight gaps and themes in the academic literature on global fashion. More advanced areas of research development have also been explored: immersive technologies aimed at educating and sensitizing global audiences about traditional textile companies and responsible consumption of goods, also in countries such China where Generation Z consumers are showing a growing willingness to purchase sustainable clothes [ 122 ]. Finally, studies directed attention to all three sustainability pillars (i.e., environmental, social, economic) as important areas for future research and action. In summary, the papers emphasize the need for joint action involving industry, policymakers, consumers and scientists to promote sustainable production and ethical consumption practices, aimed at achieving equity and the UN Sustainable Development Goals [ 119 , 120 , 121 , 122 , 123 , 124 ].

4 Discussion

This paper has explored the different dynamics of fast fashion in two major regions of the world, based on an SLR. The findings reveal a gap at various levels, in terms of both bibliographic attributes and content. This aspect suggests the existence of differing scholarly attentions and framings in covering the topic.

First, there is a time-lag in the research. Figure  2 illustrates a significant scarcity of relevant research during the years 2009–2015. However, from 2015 onwards, a gradual increase in publications is evident, with a modest peak in 2017. The period 2017–2022 demonstrates exponential growth in the number of annual publications, with a high peak in 2022. These turning points coincide with significant shifts and transformations in the fashion industry, as echoed in the literature. For instance, 2016 was labelled as one of the most ‘disruptive’ years for the fashion market, characterised by shocks, challenges and uncertainty [ 125 ]. Moreover, the year 2017 marked a significant shift in the fashion industry, characterised by organic growth and digitalisation, signalling the end of the West's dominance, particularly in European and North American countries, and the emergence of Asia–Pacific and Latin American regions as new leading players in the industry [ 125 , 126 ]. Interestingly, our dataset reveals that Global South narratives focusing on consumers, producers and consumer–producer interactions began to emerge in the years 2016–2017, whereas narratives focusing on the Global North emerged as early as 2009. In the aftermath of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2021–2022, there was a notable increase in awareness and action against the impacts of climate change and resource overconsumption [ 127 ]. This shift also influenced the discourse around fast fashion, resulting in a specific scholarly focus on sustainable business models, overconsumption, overproduction, unsustainable practices and sustainable consumption behaviours [ 128 , 129 ]. Notably, each cluster within this specified timeframe spanned 2021 or 2022.

A skewed trend was evident in the distribution of research contributions, whereby the majority of contributions centred on the Global North, with 28 out of 117 focusing on consumers and 24 out of 117 focusing on producers. In contrast, a smaller number of contributions explored the Global South, with 11 out of 117 focusing on consumers and 11 out of 117 focusing on producers. A dual focus on consumers and producers within the same region was more frequently observed than Global North versus Global South comparisons. In fact, the most fruitful space for comparison was that of the Global North, particularly regarding consumer–producer interactions (15 out of 117 papers vs. 5 out of 117 for the Global South). Moreover, only 6 out of 117 papers were comprehensively comparative.

This trend is corroborated by Fig.  3 , which illustrates the scientific production by country. In the figure, there is a notable disparity in academic publishing between countries, particularly in the Global South. Unsurprisingly, Brazil and China appear among the top contributors. Both countries are experiencing a demographic megatrend characterised by an expanding middle class [ 130 , 131 ], leading to increased purchasing power. This megatrend is also likely to impact trends in production and consumption, including demand for apparel [ 131 , 132 ]. Perhaps for this reason, in the narratives, these two countries were the only ones mentioned as ‘big markets’ where attention was being given to strategic business strategies [ 88 , 89 , 90 ]. Conversely, more extensive contributions stemmed from countries in the Global North, encompassing countries from Europe, America, Oceania and Asia.

Considering the identified narratives and themes, our findings show that consumers and producers, both in the Global North and the Global South, are identified in literature as sharing concerns about the present and future condition of the fast fashion industry. The narratives explored solutions at various stages of the fashion supply chain, aimed at enhancing environmental awareness; pro-environmental behaviours; and green, circular and transparent economic principles. Notwithstanding the significant challenges required to effectively translate these efforts into viable solutions (due to information asymmetries between the Global North and the Global South; intra-regional and inter-regional interactions between economic actors; differing levels of awareness; and economic, environmental and social interventions in ‘onshoring’ versus ‘offshoring’ dynamics), literature addressing a commitment to achieving a socially, economically and environmentally sustainable fashion industry is evident in the analysis of the literature of both regions, with respect to both consumers and producers. However, the extent of the identified efforts appears to vary.

The development of sustainable production and consumption systems occurs within social and ecological frameworks, and is affected by technological change, information technologies, market and business strategies, and behavioural change [ 23 , 133 , 134 ]. A common trend may be observed in this regard, with slow fashion and eco-fashion (emphasising social responsibility and sustainability) valued in both the Global North and the Global South. These alternatives prioritise the use of local resources, distributed economies, transparent production systems connecting producers directly with consumers, and sustainable products [ 135 , 136 ], and they have been identified as important avenues for current and future sustainability in both regions [ 52 , 60 , 69 , 70 , 72 , 75 , 80 , 81 , 82 , 86 ].

However, in this eco-humanistic perspective, Footnote 2 different levels of importance are attributed to the two dominating systems [ 134 ]—that of values (used here as a proxy for social, environmental, traditional and historical elements) and that of economics (used here as a proxy for business strategies, economic principles, digitalization, behavioral and cognitive characteristics).

In the Global South, waste management initiatives (e.g., those aimed at reuse, recycling and resale), the development of green technologies and circular principles, the adoption of contemporary models of corporate social responsibility (CSR) to address the growing second-hand clothing market, and the exploration of certain behavioural and cognitive characteristic informing environmentally conscious and responsible consumers with strong product knowledge who receive transparent and informative information from producers, may be investigated as economic patterns. Notably, these considerations are embedded in discussions of social and ecological factors, highlighting locality, culture, traditional values and nature. Significantly, change is proposed to stem from local values and social structures, reflecting a bottom-up approach. Such initiatives, originating in local communities, may pertain to producers—as highlighted in the case studies from Ecuador and the Philippines [ 86 , 87 ]—and/or consumers—as seen in the practice of hand-me-down clothing and sharing [ 76 , 77 , 78 ], with the aim of promoting green economic development with respect to the environment (social and natural).

Conversely, in the Global North, circular and sustainable initiatives are more strictly aligned with economic considerations, with market strategies informing a circular transition driven by competitiveness and profitability [ 1 , 58 , 70 ]. Thus, efforts are directed towards the abandonment of communicative, business and marketing practices such as greenwashing or greenhushing, in favour of circular economy principles in the supply chain [ 58 , 67 ], digitalization [ 68 ], transparent business practices, the development of commercial sustainability, and the 3Rs principle [ 71 ], even when the goal is to promote new values and a localist, collectivistic attitude [ 60 , 69 ]. Similarly, consumer preferences are explored using cognitive and behavioural components and social characteristics, alongside market considerations (e.g., willingness to pay) [ 45 , 50 , 52 ]. While, only when analysing a specific community interestingly rooted in the cultural heritage of the Global South, the potential and effective role of traditional community values is mentioned [ 79 ]. Interactions between producers and consumers with respect to the adoption of sustainability are explored through examples of transparent business models that are openly committed to social and environmental responsibility [ 96 , 98 ] (i.e., systemic innovations [ 92 , 93 ]), and consumers' active involvement in production processes [ 1 , 99 ], rather than attitudes, subjective norms, and perceptions [ 104 , 107 ]. Even when explored at a national policy level [ 72 ], these transformations find their rationale in the necessity to comply with supranational and international strategies (e.g., the UN Fashion Charter and the Fashion Pact, EU Strategy for Sustainable and Circular Textiles) and sustainability initiatives (e.g., European Textile Network) [ 59 , 60 , 61 , 62 ].

Existing inequalities in global governance and economic relations among the Global North and the Global South relations [ 18 , 19 , 20 , 21 , 22 ] are mirrored in the analysis of the approaches each region is taking to achieve sustainability in the fashion industry.

In 2018 Wu et al. [ 137 ] observed that the decoupling of developing countries from unsustainable practices was fluctuating and lacking in regularity—a trend echoed in our discussion. In fact, the shift in the fashion industry towards sustainable development predominantly occurs within the developed and politically active Global North. Conversely, in the Global South, this transition is contingent upon country-specific factors, including socio-economic and cultural contexts. In the Global North, structured, innovative and transparent market strategies for sustainable consumption and production patterns are implemented under political guidance. It is imperative that these strategies be adopted globally, extending to the Global South. This may be achieved, for instance, through an active commitment to corporate social and environmental responsibility in sourcing decisions and the integration of the Global South into sustainable supply chain management through investment in decarbonisation and energy infrastructure [ 111 , 112 , 113 , 114 , 118 ]. Furthermore, there is a need for joint action between the Global South and the Global North at a governmental level, within an inclusive framework [ 115 , 119 , 120 , 121 , 122 , 123 , 124 ]. This is due to the differing capacities of developed and developing countries to address the challenges of unsustainable consumption and production. In the Global North, sustainable development is already reliant on structural systemic innovations and policy guidance [ 137 , 138 ].

5 Conclusions

If, on the one hand, the present SLR acknowledges that the analysed existing literature on the topic underlines a genuine commitment to the long-term development of a sustainable fashion industry, with attention given to Global North–Global South dynamics (as particularly evident with respect to, e.g., waste and outsourcing), it is notable that this landscape remains fragmented, as highlighted by the discussed temporal and geographical distribution of research.

Emphasising the need to achieve all three pillars of sustainability, and broadening the scope of the investigation to encompass the Global South, future research should employ comparative approaches centred on the creation of a common good (i.e., common interests and solutions) between developed and developing countries [ 139 ]. This may involve recognising the unequal consequences of global trends and combining green digitalisation and new technologies with the preservation of local and cultural values to encourage mindful consumption and production (as emphasised, for instance, in the concepts of slow fashion and eco-fashion). Envisioning a comprehensive eco-humanistic vision, the integration of growth and development with the social and natural environment, alongside advancements in science and technology (including ICT and immersive technologies), may result in a sustainable development system worldwide [ 134 ].

While our analysis adopted an economic perspective, focusing on the disparity between the Global North and the Global South, we recognise the importance of directing scholars’ attention in challenging existing power dynamics within the traditional economic paradigm, starting with acknowledging the literature gap evident in the differing bibliographic attributes and content narratives according to world region. To strengthen the development of a sustainable and circular fashion industry, while fostering sustainable and socio-ecologically equitable production and consumption patterns, future research must address the gap in environmental responsibility, global governance and economic relations between the Global North and the Global South [ 21 , 23 , 138 , 140 ]. Although our research questions did not explicitly address governance, this topic emerged as an interesting analytical thread. Thus, future research could explore the role played by governance in consumer–producer interactions, and its impact on the imbalanced Global North–Global South dynamic. Reflecting on this aspect could yield valuable insights for empirical applications to further progress towards global sustainability targets, emphasising social and ecological considerations alongside economic dynamics of production and consumption. This, in turn, may actively support collaborative initiatives such as the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals and the United Nations Alliance for Sustainable Fashion, while also contributing to the creation of new ones.

Data availability

Data are available from the authors upon reasonable request.

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Bonelli, F., Caferra, R. & Morone, P. In need of a sustainable and just fashion industry: identifying challenges and opportunities through a systematic literature review in a Global North/Global South perspective. Discov Sustain 5 , 186 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s43621-024-00400-5

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