war of the roses essay

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Wars of the Roses

By: History.com Editors

Updated: June 3, 2020 | Original: November 9, 2009

The Wars of the Roses were a series of bloody civil wars for the throne of England between two competing royal families: the House of York and the House of Lancaster, both members of the age-old royal Plantagenet family. Waged between 1455 and 1485, the Wars of the Roses earned its flowery name because the white rose was the badge of the Yorks, and the red rose was the badge of the Lancastrians. After 30 years of political manipulation, horrific carnage and brief periods of peace, the wars ended and a new royal dynasty emerged.

In 1422, Henry VI succeeded his father Henry V and became King of England—at just nine months old.

Thanks to his father’s military conquests, Henry VI also became the disputed King of France. In 1445, Henry VI married Margaret of Anjou, a noble and strong-willed Frenchwoman whose ambition and political savvy overshadowed her husband’s.

All was not well in King Henry’s court. He had little interest in politics and was a weak ruler. This incited rampant lawlessness throughout his realm and opened the door for power-hungry nobles and kingmakers to plot behind his back.

Richard of York

Henry’s lack of leadership led him to lose almost all his holdings in France. This and the corruption and mismanagement of power in England, not to mention heavy taxation, caused frustrated property owners and peasants from Kent to revolt in 1450.

Led by Jack Cade, they marched on London and presented Henry with a list of demands known as the “Complaint of the Poor Commons of Kent.”

Henry never officially agreed to Cade’s demands, one of which was to recall Richard, Duke of York, from Ireland back to England. Richard of York—as great-grandson of King Edward III—had a strong competing claim on the English throne.

After a series of skirmishes, Henry squashed Cade’s rebellion and pardoned the rebels—except for Jack Cade himself, who would later die from a mortal wound during his arrest.

Henry believed Richard of York was behind Cade’s rebellion (though there’s scant evidence that the Duke of York was involved). This rivalry set the stage for 30 years of battles for power involving three generations of Yorks and Lancasters.

The Madness of King Henry VI

By 1452, Richard of York had returned to England and decided his mission in life was to rid Henry of his corrupt advisors, particularly Edmund Beaufort, Duke of Somerset. He raised an army and marched on London declaring fealty to Henry while also compelling him to remove Somerset from his post.

But Somerset held on until Henry succumbed to his first bout of madness in 1454, leaving him virtually catatonic and unable to reign.

During Henry’s illness, Richard became Lord Protector of England and imprisoned Somerset in the Tower of London. It was a bitter victory, however: Queen Margaret had given birth to Henry’s only son, Edward of Lancaster, in 1453, which weakened Richard’s claim to the throne.

In February 1455, Henry recovered from his spell of insanity almost as suddenly as he’d yielded to it. Richard and his ministers were sent away and Somerset reinstated.

On May 22, 1455, Richard of York, aligned with Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick, marched against Henry at St. Albans. After failed negotiations, the brief yet vicious battle raged through the town’s streets and left Somerset dead and Henry wounded.

The Yorks took Henry prisoner and Richard became Lord Protector again. Queen Margaret and her young son, fearful for their lives, went into exile.

The Battle of Blore Heath

As Richard maintained a shaky hold on England, Margaret worked behind the scenes to restore Henry to the throne, and uphold her son’s place as his rightful heir. Fearing his days were numbered, Richard formed an army commanded by Lord Salisbury.

Salisbury’s army met Margaret’s large and well-equipped army, commanded by Lord Audley, at Blore Heath on September 23, 1459 in Staffordshire. Though outnumbered two to one, the Yorks soundly defeated the Lancastrians.

The Battles of Ludford Bridge and Northampton

The Battle of Ludford Bridge was not waged with ammunition, but was a battle of wills and courage. By autumn of 1459, Henry and his queen had once again mustered a significant army, which now included many York deserters.

Richard of York, Salisbury, Warwick and their forces withdrew to Ludlow Bridge near Ludford, Shropshire to stand against Henry and his men. On the night of October 12, many Yorks defected and their leaders fled; Richard himself fled back to Ireland.

But Richard and his supporters weren’t finished harassing Henry and Margaret. In June of 1460, Richard’s ally Warwick entered London with thousands of men. As they advanced on Henry’s army in Northampton, victory seemed unlikely.

But unbeknownst to Henry, one of his Lancastrian commanders was a turncoat and allowed Warwick’s men access to Henry’s camp. The Yorks easily won the battle and captured King Henry as Margaret fled once again.

The Battle of Wakefield

With Henry under his control, Richard again proclaimed himself and his heirs Henry’s successors. Henry agreed so long as he’d retain the crown until his death.

Their agreement was passed by the English Parliament and called the Act of Accord. The ambitious Queen Margaret, however, would have none of this compromise, and raised another army to rise against the Yorks.

Richard set out with his forces to defeat Margaret’s army and settle the matter of succession once and for all. The armies clashed at Wakefield Green near Sandal Castle. But things didn’t work out as Richard had planned. He was killed; his severed head was put on display wearing a paper crown.

Battle of Towton

Richard’s son Edward, Earl of March, succeeded his father. He also took over where Richard left off against the Lancastrians.

In the middle of winter 1461, his York forces defeated the Lancastrians at the Battle of Mortimer’s Cross. Weeks later, they were crushed by the Lancastrians at the Second Battle of St. Albans. It was here King Henry was rescued and reunited with his queen, but Edward wouldn’t give up.

In March of 1461, Edward confronted the Lancastrian army in a snowstorm in the middle of a field near Towton, North Yorkshire. It’s believed over 50,000 men engaged in brutal fighting and around 28,000 died.

The Battle of Towton was the bloodiest one-day battle in England’s history. The Yorks emerged victorious and Henry, Margaret and their son fled to Scotland leaving Edward King of England.

Power Changes Hands Again and Again

Edward IV may have gained the throne, but he’d underestimated the deposed Queen Margaret’s stealth and ambition. With the help of her compatriots in France, she ousted Edward and restored her husband to the throne in October 1470.

Edward went into hiding but wasn’t idle. He mustered an army and won York victories at the Battle of Barnett and the Battle of Tewksbury. At Tewskbury, Henry and Margaret’s only son was killed and the royal couple were captured and held in the Tower of London; the throne of England reverted back to Edward.

On May 21, 1471, deposed King Henry VI died, supposedly of sadness, although some historians believe Edward had him murdered. Queen Margaret was eventually released and made her way back to Anjou in France, where she died in 1482.

Princes in the Tower

King Edward IV died in 1483 and was succeeded by his young son Edward V. Richard III , the ambitious brother of Edward IV, became his nephew Edward’s Lord Protector—but he plotted to have Edward V and his younger brother declared illegitimate.

The power-hungry Richard succeeded in his plot and was crowned in July 1483.

To eliminate any threats to his throne, Richard III had his young nephews held in the Tower of London , supposedly for their protection. When both boys—now famous as the Princes in the Tower—vanished and Richard was accused of ordering them murdered, the king quickly lost favor with his people.

As Richard’s right to the throne became tenuous, the Lancastrian Henry Tudor—with the help of France and many nobles—staked his claim to the crown. He met Richard on the battlefield at Bosworth on August 22, 1485.

After fighting valiantly, Richard III was killed. Legend has it his crown was placed on Henry’s head at the very spot where Richard fell. Henry was declared King Henry VII.

After his official coronation, Henry married Elizabeth of York to reconcile the long-feuding Lancaster and York houses. This union ended the Wars of the Roses and gave rise to the Tudor Dynasty.

Medieval Sourcebook: Jack Cade: Proclamation of Grievances, 1450. Fordham University. War of the Roses, 1455-1485. Military History Encyclopedia on the Web. The Wars of the Roses. Historic UK. The Wars of the Roses (1455-1485). Luminarium: Encyclopedia Project. Wars of the Roses. Oxford Bibliographies.

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Wars of the Roses summary

Know about the wars of the roses between the house of york and the house of lancaster.

Wars of the Roses , (1455–85) Series of dynastic civil wars between the houses of Lancaster and York for the English throne. The wars were named for the emblems of the two houses, the white rose of York and the red of Lancaster. Both claimed the throne through descent from Edward III . Lancastrians held the throne from 1399, but the country fell into a state of near anarchy during the reign of Henry VI, and during one of Henry’s bouts with madness in 1453 the duke of York was declared protector of the realm. Henry reestablished his authority in 1455, and the battle was joined. The Yorkists succeeded in putting Edward IV on the throne in 1461, but the wars continued, and in 1471 they murdered Henry VI in the Tower of London. In 1483 Richard III overrode the claims of his nephew Edward V to seize the throne, alienating many Yorkists. The Lancastrian Henry Tudor ( Henry VII ) defeated and killed Richard at the Battle of Bosworth Field, ending the wars. He united the houses by marriage and defeated a Yorkist rising in 1487. See also earl of Warwick.

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In This Article Expand or collapse the "in this article" section Wars of the Roses

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Wars of the Roses by Michael Hicks LAST REVIEWED: 06 February 2012 LAST MODIFIED: 06 February 2012 DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199791279-0066

The Wars of the Roses is the 19th-century name given to the English civil wars fought roughly between 1450 and 1509. The principal conflicts took place in 1459–1461 (First War), 1469–1471 (Second War), and 1483–1485 (Third War). The wars developed during the reign of King Henry VI (1422–1461) and they stemmed from the loss of the Hundred Years’ War, the consequent near-bankruptcy of successive governments, and the deepest point of the economic slump following the Black Death in 1348. Following the acute crisis of 1450, a kaleidoscope of short-term shocks occurred, notably Henry VI’s madness (1453–1455) and the first battle of St. Albans (1455). Starting from reform against what were regarded as corrupt and treasonable evil councilors, Richard, Duke of York (d. 1460), became a dynastic rival in 1460: the Yorkist rival to the Lancastrians. York was killed at the battle of Wakefield. His son Edward IV (r. 1461–1483), the first Yorkist king, decisively defeated the Lancastrians in 1461. His reign was punctuated by a Second War, in which Warwick the Kingmaker (d. 1471) made Henry VI briefly king again (the Readeption, 1470–1471). Edward recovered his throne at the battles of Barnet and Tewkesbury. Following Edward IV’s death and the succession of his son Edward V, in 1483, the throne was usurped by Edward’s uncle, Richard III (r. 1483–1485), who was overthrown at the battle of Bosworth in 1485 by Henry Tudor, who reigned as Henry VII (r. 1485–1509). Yorkist contenders Lambert Simnel and Perkin Warbeck threatened Henry VII’s hold on the throne until 1499 and others did so beyond that date. The wars constituted a period of exceptional instability marked by dozens of violent episodes. The political and financial weaknesses of the Crown were compounded by the political activism of the Commons, who rebelled in 1460 and 1470 in numbers beyond those that any monarch proved capable of resisting. Opponents of each regime repeatedly sheltered in Calais, France, and/or in Ireland, or they were given shelter by the rulers of Burgundy, France, or Scotland. They launched a series of invasions against England, four of which were successful. The wars played a part in the power struggles of France and Burgundy. From 1460, all monarchs had rivals with competing claims to the Crown. Rivals weakened all kings, who were unable to command the allegiance that all monarchs needed. The most influential commentator was Chief Justice Fortescue, who blamed a flawed political system. Tudor historians today credit Henry VII with ending the wars by means of his ruthless social control. However, it is also true that economic recovery made the Crown solvent once again and, in so doing, removed many of the grievances of the people at the same time that the great continental powers lost interest in destabilizing English governments.

The Wars of the Roses has attracted a series of top-flight historians. Most influential among later contributors has been McFarlane’s brief paper ( McFarlane 1981 ). Harriss 2005 and Pollard 2000 are contrasting detailed narratives, respectively, up to 1461 and of the whole 15th century. Goodman 1981 is still the best military history of the wars. Pollard 2001 and Carpenter 1997 are favorite textbooks and offer contrasting interpretations. Royle 2009 recycles the traditional story, which the author traces back to 1399. Hicks 2010 seeks to explain the entire era. Ross 1976 takes a broader and less narrative approach.

Carpenter, Christine. The Wars of the Roses: Politics and the Constitution in England, c. 1437–1509 . Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1997.

The most thorough and up-to-date survey that is the standard student textbook. Follows Watts 1996 (cited under The First War and Its Lengthy Preamble ) in discounting Henry VI and takes a very favorable view of Edward IV.

Goodman, Anthony. The Wars of the Roses: Military Activity and English Society, 1452–97 . London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1981.

The best military history that deals thoroughly with recruitment, manpower, and logistics.

Harriss, Gerald L. Shaping the Nation: England 1360–1461 . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005.

Now the standard history for the preliminaries. Especially strong on the period before 1447, but has much of value to say regarding the preamble to, and the outbreak of, the Wars of the Roses.

Hicks, Michael. The Wars of the Roses . New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2010.

Full-length survey that explains why the wars began, why they kept recurring, and why they ceased in terms of wider economic context. Less unfavorable than most to Henry VI and Margaret of Anjou; skeptical of Henry VII.

McFarlane, Kenneth B. “The Wars of the Roses.” In England in the Fifteenth Century . By Kenneth B. McFarlane, 231–268. London: Hambledon Press, 1981.

Brilliant and superbly researched lecture by the inspirer of all modern studies.

Pollard, Anthony J. Late Medieval England 1399–1509 . Harlow, UK: Longman, 2000.

A very full account of political history before and during the Wars of the Roses that comprehensively reviews all the relevant literature. Does tend to sit on the fence.

Pollard, Anthony J. The Wars of the Roses . 2d ed. Basingstoke, UK: Macmillan, 2001.

First published in 1988. Concise, accessible, reliable, and comprehensive survey of the whole sequence of wars. A student favorite.

Ross, Charles D. The Wars of the Roses . London: Thames and Hudson, 1976.

Succinct and well-illustrated account of most aspects of the wars.

Royle, Trevor. The Road to Bosworth Field: A New History of the Wars of the Roses . London: Little, Brown, 2009.

Takes a very long view and offers a highly accessible traditional interpretation.

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• War of the Roses

White roses against red roses. What does it mean? The War of the Roses was an English civil war that lasted thirty years. The two sides were noble houses, York and Lancaster. Each felt they had a claim to the English throne. So how did this conflict happen, and how did it end? Let's explore this article to learn about the most important battles, a map of the conflict, and a timeline!

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What about the getting of the garland, keeping it, losing and winning it again? It hath cost more English blood than twice the winning of France.

–William Shakespeare, Richard III.

Origins of the War of the Roses

The houses of York and Lancaster were both descended from King Edward III (1312-1377). He had four sons who lived to adulthood with his queen Philippa of Hainault. However, his eldest son, Edward the Black Prince, died before his father, and according to the law of the land, the crown passed to the Black Prince's son, who became Richard II (r. 1377-1399). However, Richard's kingship was not popular with Edward's other son, John of Gaunt (1340-1399).

John instilled his dissatisfaction with not inheriting the throne in his son, Henry of Bolingbroke, who overthrew Richard II to become King Henry IV in 1399. Thus the two branches of the War of the Roses were born–those descended from Henry IV became the Lancasters, and those descended from Edward III's elder son Lionel, Duke of Clarence (Richard II had no children), became the Yorks.

Wars of the Roses Flags

The Wars of the Roses are called such because each side, York and Lancaster, chose a different color of rose to symbolize them. The Yorks used the white rose to represent them, and the Lancasters chose red. Tudor King Henry VIII took Elizabeth of York as his queen when the Wars ended. They combined the white and red roses to make the Tudor Rose.

Causes of the War of the Roses

King Henry V conquered France in a decisive victory in the Hundred Years' War (1337-1453) at the Battle of Agincourt in 1415. He died suddenly in 1422, leaving his one-year-old son as King Henry VI (1421-1471). However, unlike his hero father, Henry VI was weak and mentally unstable, quickly squandering England's victory and causing political unrest. The king's weakness caused those closest to him to doubt his ability to rule England effectively.

Two opposite factions in the nobility appeared. On the one hand, Henry's cousin Richard, Duke of York, openly objected to the monarchy's domestic and foreign policy decisions.

Richard, Duke of York (1411-1460)

Richard descended from an elder son of Edward III than King Henry VI, which meant that his claim to the throne was stronger than Henry's. Richard disagreed with the king's decision to yield to France's demands to relinquish conquered territory and marry a French princess to end the Hundred Years War.

Richard, Duke of York, taking leave of his Mother

In 1450, he became the opposition movement leader against the king and his government. He said he did not want to replace the king but became Protector of the Realm in 1453 after Henry had a mental breakdown.

However, Richard had a formidable opponent in Henry VI's queen, Margaret of Anjou (1430-1482), who would stop at nothing to keep the Lancastrians in power. She formed the royalist party around her weak husband, and the clash between York and Lancaster began.

Margaret of Anjou was a shrewd political player in the War of the Roses, earning the title "She-Wolf of France" from William Shakespeare. She married Henry VI as part of a treaty with France to end the Hundred Years War and controlled the Lancastrian government for much of her reign. Seeing Richard of York as a challenge to her husband's rule, in 1455, she called a Great Council of government officials and did not invite Richard or his family. This snub sparked the thirty-year War of the Roses between the Yorks and the Lancasters.

Wars of the Roses Map

Even though the War of the roses involved the whole kingdom, not every region of England saw the same grade of violence. Most battles happened south of the Humber and north of the Thames. The first and last battles were the Battle of St. Alban (May 22, 1455) and the Battle of Bosworth (August 22, 1485).

War of the Roses Timeline

Let us take a look at the timeline

War of the Roses: A Summary of the End

The new King Henry VII married Edward IV's daughter, Elizabeth of York (1466-1503) . This alliance merged the York and Lancaster houses under a shared banner, the Tudor Rose. Although there would still be power struggles to maintain the Tudor dynasty's power during the new king's reign, the War of the Roses was over.

War of the Roses - Key takeaways

• The War of the Roses was an English civil war between 1455 and 1485 over control of the English throne.
• The noble houses of York and Lancaster both shared King Edward III as an ancestor, and much of the fighting was over who had the better claim to the crown.
• The major players for the Yorkist side were Richard, Duke of York, his son who became King Edward IV, and Edward's brother, who became King Richard III.
• The major Lancastrian players were King Henry VI, Queen Margaret of Anjou, and Henry Tudor.
• The War of the Roses ended in 1485 when Henry Tudor defeated Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth Field, then married Edward IV's daughter Elizabeth of York to combine the two noble houses.

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Margaret of Anjou

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Frequently Asked Questions about War of the Roses

What was the War of the Roses about?

The War of the Roses was a civil war for control over the English monarchy between two noble houses, both descended from King Edward III.

How long did the War of the Roses last?

Thirty years, from 1455-1485.

How many people died in the War of the Roses?

Approximately 28,000 people died in the War of the Roses.

Who won the War of the Roses?

Henry VII and the Lancastrian/Tudor side.

How did Henry VII end the War of the Roses?

He defeated Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth in 1485 and married Elizabeth of York to combine the two noble houses of York and Lancaster under the new Tudor dynasty.

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History resources, stories and news. Author: Dan Moorhouse

Causes of the Wars of the Roses

What were the causes of the wars of the roses the wars of the roses were the results of years of growing tension. the hundred years war had gone badly. england had lost all of her mainland european lands except the port of calais. ill feeling about the way that the war had been fought caused tension. the appointment of favourites to positions in court led to criticism of the government. rival hereditary claims to the throne were raised. combined they led to violence. the act of accord was agreed as a compromise. however the queen refused to accept it, the rival factions then used force..

Overview: Causes of the Wars of the Roses

The Wars of the Roses were caused by a series of linked factors:

The Wars in France

Economic depression, political upheaval, societal change, weak leadership and poor governance, dynastic disputes, factions (sides).

On 17th July 1453, the English suffered a crushing defeat at the hands of the French at the Battle of Castillion. It led to the loss of nearly all English possessions on the continent: only Calais remained. This defeat marked the end of the Hundred Years War. Throughout the course of the reign of Henry VI, there had been military reversals in France. Lands won by King Henry V were lost in a French Campaign inspired by Joan of Arc.

In England, this caused political, economic and social problems. At the highest levels of Government, nobles had disagreed over tactics in the French Wars. Some, like Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, had argued for a more aggressive policy. One of expansion and taking the war to the French. Crushing them before they could recover fully from the losses that they themselves had suffered at the hands of Henry V. Others such as William de la Pole, Duke of Suffolk, had adopted a more cautious policy. These nobles saw benefits in diplomacy, including the marriage treaty of the young King Henry VI to Margaret of Anjou. War was expensive, diplomacy could achieve the same.

However, the French were resurgent under the inspired leadership of Joan of Arc, then Charles VII. Gradually, English territories in France and Normandy were reduced. Some victories, such as at Le Mans, were won by English forces. They were soon overcome. Throughout the 1440s and early 1450s, this led to regular requests for additional men at arms, archers, supplies and funding. The burden both financially and in human form was largely placed upon the counties of the South East of England.

The taxation, loss of lives, impact on local economies and the perceived mismanagement of all of these led to political questions being raised at Council. Duke of Royal Blood, Humphrey and Richard, 3rd Duke of York, distanced themselves from proponents of the more cautious approach and began questioning government appointments. In Kentish towns, people grew increasingly disenchanted, resulting in the rebellion in 1450 of Jack Cade.

The ultimate loss of French possessions following the Battle of Castillon appeared to vindicate the arguments made by the likes of Richard, 3rd Duke of York. In doing so, it simply widened the divide between nobles who already had little time for one another.

The 1440s saw a period of economic depression across Western Europe. This affected English trade with the continent. Exports were affected by changing relationships with European powers. There were changes to the trading agreements that both the English and other nations had. Warfare impacted on trade as well.

Much of European trade was governed by the Hanseatic League. This was a confederation of merchants and guilds, originally centred around Germany. By the 1440s it had ports in modern-day Holland, Brugge, and had gained commercial monopolisation of trade in the Baltic. The Hanseatic League had agents in England. They traded in London and at other ports around the country. However, the league’s monopolisation of Baltic Trade and wars that the League fought (Against the Dutch and Danish) hampered English overseas trade. This added to existing economic issues experienced in England. London merchants called for the expulsion of the League. Though trade could take place, it was increasingly limited to shipping via Calais. This limited opportunities at a time when some emerging industries and the wool trade were struggling.

The economy at home was in crisis as well. As with the rest of Europe, the economy was changing. Towns were growing and older, feudal, roles gradually disappearing. The population had not recovered from the Black Death. Supply and Demand of all sorts of produce were imbalanced. Wages had been limited by the Statute of Labourers. Required levies of Taxation remained at pre-Black Death levels due to ongoing warfare and the running costs of government.

This led to administrators of the Kings Treasury having a complicated situation to deal with. They needed to make the most out of tax that was collected. Efficiency was important in order to maintain effective government and to fund the ongoing wars with France. The counsellors appointed by Henry VI became accused of malpractice and corruption with regard to the management of the treasury. As these counsellors were nobles favoured by the King and his Queen, it contributed to the growth of opposition to the Kings Government.

Political structures in England had changed in the years leading up to the Wars of the Roses. It was a period in which ‘Bastard Feudalism’ existed. In this era, there remained a strong and powerful nobility. They retained large amounts of land. Nobles had rights, such as to attend Parliament. Responsibilities were also in place, such as to ensure law and order. Nobles could be stripped of titles through an attainder, an Act of Parliament that removed titles and property.

New classes were emerging though. Towns were growing and with them, professional classes were emerging. These people were educated and hugely important to the economy locally and nationally. Guilds formed around key trades. In major towns and cities, the role of councils had grown in importance.

The church remained important. It held large amounts of land and was a major lender of funds for important matters such as military campaigns. The bishops of the wealthiest and most important diocese had a huge amount of political influence. They acted as mediators, diplomats and bankers, as well as overseeing the spiritual wellbeing of the nation.

These changes meant that when Henry VI became king, there was a system of Government in place that could rule on his behalf until he became an adult. His uncles, the Dukes of Bedford and Gloucester, had responsibilities as guardians and Regents. The Council of major nobles was to rule through collective responsibility. This allowed debate and voting, with a majority decision deciding matters. Parliament could also debate and confirm matters. In theory, it is a system that would allow the management of England to be effective.

The drawback of the system is that it allowed the most powerful men to dominate. Lesser nobles sought favour and so would choose to support people in hope of self-advancement. When there were divisions between the most powerful men at court, this then spread to other nobles. It resulted in opposing sides or factions forming.

• A power bloc formed around Cardinal Beaufort.
• Later a rift emerged between those in favour of aggression in France and those wanting to adopt diplomacy.
• As the King fell into a state of Catatonia the Queen assembled favourites around herself to protect the interests of the young Prince Edward. She was faced with opposition from Richard, 3rd Duke of York and other powerful magnates such as the Earls of Salisbury and Warwick.
• The largest political upheaval was perhaps the collapse of King Henry VIs health. The structure was not clear on who ought to rule in his stead. This led to a widening of the divide between the factions that had formed around the Queen and Duke of York respectively.

The Rebellion of Jack Cade, noted above, is illustrative of the way in which society had changed in the years leading up to the Wars of the Roses. Many people had broken free of ties to the land. There was more flexibility in the labour market. Towns had grown in size. Education and political awareness had blossomed, at least in some parts of the country.

The changes meant that on a local level a noble could not necessarily just order people to do his bidding. Retainers were in place for the major noble families and at strategic points along the Scottish Borders and in the Welsh Marches. Other roles were beginning to become more private. Wages for Labourers had needed to be determined by law following sharp rises in costs following the devastation of the Black Death. Products from far inland were being traded along river routes around the country and across the Channel or the North Sea into Europe. Though that was not new, it was spreading.

These changes allowed an element of social mobility. Families could rise from relative poverty to relative wealth. The best example of this for which we have significant evidence is the Paston Family of Norfolk. Through education, a sound investment, selective marriages and befriending the right people they were transformed into a family that held several manors, a Castle and the ear of senior nobles.

Such changes meant that as society changed, so did societies expectations of the lawmakers. Preachers spoke of the rights of the working man. The result was raised awareness of issues such as politics and fiscal (tax) matters. When things went wrong or were hotly debated at Government level, the news spread to the people.

As suggested above the system of government allowed for a King, Regent or Council to rule quite effectively. Where leadership was strong, law and order would be maintained. Where there was a lack of confidence in the leadership, it could be challenged. That is what happened in England following the death of the Duke of Bedford.

At first, there were simply disagreements about policy. This is most evident in the contrasting views taken about the Wars in France. It developed into questions about the quality and integrity of those governing the country.

Upon assuming control as an adult, Henry VI began appointing younger, inexperienced, nobles to roles within the court. Influenced by his Queen, Margaret of Anjou, these men became viewed as favourites. Closer to the Kings age and eager to advance themselves, they rose to senior positions within the system of Government. Other nobles too were perceived to be receiving favourable treatment from the Royal Couple.

This caused discontent among the more established noble families and for the likes of the Duke of York who was of royal blood himself. The management of the treasury, trade, pay for the garrison at Calais, the Lieutenancy of Calais, Normandy and other overseas lands were all at one point held by one of these favourites. Each of these areas suffered serious deficiencies in the 1440s and 1450s.

Senior nobles felt both disenfranchised and despair in the manner in which the administration went about its business. It led to friction, argument and the factionalism that is discussed below.

The wider population was also concerned at these issues. Not only were there revolts, most famously the Cade Rebellion but also growing support for those nobles who spoke out about the maladministration that was taking place.

Weak leadership also had another effect. Where there was no strength at the heart of government, there was no strength in the justice system that held the nobility to account. Localised arguments began to be settled by force, rather than through arbitration.

The legitimate right to be the king was incredibly important in the late medieval world. Kings were anointed and viewed as being chosen by god. Many people, including nobles, simply would not countenance the thought of challenging a crowned monarch. Yet if that monarch was not the rightful king, some would.

In the case of the Wars of the Roses this was an issue.

From the death of Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester until the birth of Prince Edward, the heir to the throne by primogeniture was Richard, 3rd Duke of York. However, he also had a claim to be the legitimate monarch in his own right. Henry VI was monarch as a result of his grandfather, Henry IV, usurping the throne. It then passed to Henry V then to the infant Henry VI.

Henry IV had overthrown Richard II.

The rightful heir to Richard II was his cousin, Philippa. She was the daughter of Lionel, Duke of Clarence, the second eldest son of Edward III. Though women themselves did not inherit titles as a matter of course at this time, their husbands did. Philippa married Edmund Mortimer. Richard, 3rd Duke of York was a great-grandson of Philippa and heir to the Mortimer line. By right, he could claim to be the legitimate king through that family line.

Richard also had a claim through his paternal line. His grandfather was Edmund of Langley, Duke of York. Edmund was the 5th son of King Edward III. As the Beaufort line had been disinherited, this made Richard the next in line to the throne whilst Henry VI was King, prior to the birth of Prince Edward.

Richard did not press a dynastic claim to the throne for quite some time. He didn’t particularly need to, he was heir to the throne and the most powerful magnate in the country. The dynastic claim is brought to the fore when factionalism isolates him. The urgency to assert his and his lines claim is magnified by the birth of Prince Edward.

Consequently, as political divisions are more apparent, so too is the need to press the dynastic claims to the throne. It resulted in the Act of Accord. The Act of Accord saw Prince Edward overlooked for inheritance in favour of Richard and his descendants.

Queen Margaret was incensed by the disinheriting of her son. It led to an already tense situation turning violent.

Throughout any study of the causes of the Wars of the Roses, you will find references to factions. Typically, this refers to the two sides in the events immediately prior to the outbreak of the wars. They had been formed prior to the First Battle of St. Albans and became cemented in the period between this battle and the Battle of Blore Heath.

One faction formed around the Duke of York. It portrayed itself at first as a loyal opposition. They claimed to want to force reform and remove inept or corrupt officials. This faction gained support from the Earl of Warwick, one of the wealthiest men in the country. Warwick’s father, the Earl of Salisbury, also supported York.

The second faction was centred around the court of Queen Margaret. She had influenced many appointments to the court. Her intention was to secure her position and, following the birth of Prince Edward, to make sure that he, not Richard, was the heir to the throne.

The factions clashed over the governance of England during Henry VI’s periods of mental incapacity. Margaret wanted to rule in her husband’s place. The Council and Parliament appointed the Duke of York.

Following the return to health of Henry VI, the Queen’s favourites were returned to positions of authority. They replaced men loyal to the Duke of York. This pattern was the same in both of Henry’s periods of prolonged ill-health. To the ‘loyal opposition’ is simply demonstrated the corrupt nature of the Kings Government.

Factionalism combined with the Dynastic disputes led to the Parliament of Devils. At this Coventry Parliament, the ‘loyal opposition’ was attained in their absence. This left little choice for the Duke of York and Earls of Warwick and Salisbury but to fight for their titles, lands and rights.

Long and Short Term Causes: putting it into perspective

Long term causes of the wars of the roses.

The origins of the conflict between the different branches of the Plantagenet family dates back to the final days of the 14th century.  Richard II  was usurped and killed in 1399. His successor was  Henry IV . The problem with Henry taking the crown was that he had been disinherited by Richard II and usurping a rightful king wasn’t the way to do things.

Minority regency

Later, as  Henry V  dies leaving an infant heir, this matter of legitimacy becomes more significant. The right to govern as regent, to be on the council, to lead men, is based largely on seniority. In  Richard, 3rd Duke of York  there is a noble who could have been king if Henry IV’s disinheritance had stood.

France and finances

The signs of discontent become apparent as the Hundred Years War continues. Despite victories such as that at Agincourt in 1415, things were not going according to plan for the English. In  Henry VI’s minority the French rise up under Joan of Arc. Though Joan is captured and executed it comes at a price for the English.

The war was costing too much. The land was now being lost. The nobles were not in agreement over how best to proceed. This sees the development of obvious friction between different factions at cour

Short term causes of the Wars of the Roses

Henry VI  had come to power as an infant. His government was run by a council until his majority (coming of age). The council was dominated by a few powerful men. When Henry came of age these men lost some of their importance as Henry appointed his friends and took less notice of the senior courtiers than they wanted. This led to friction and  Richard of York  was given a job that meant he could be useful but far from the court. The government wasn’t very effective though. Richard had to be called back and he immediately challenged others over their influence and work. Henry VI became very ill.  He lost his mental capacity . Richard, Duke of York, was the senior Royal. He was made defender and protector of the realm, ruling in Henry’s place. Richard moved elements of the factions that he disapproved of from the court. This allowed him to govern in a way that he thought was best for the country. After a year, Henry VI suddenly recovered. Richard’s policies quickly began to be withdrawn and all of Henry’s favourites returned to positions of significance.

Armed camps

Furious arguments broke out among the king’s councillors. Richard demanded the throne for himself. He had an army and was willing to use it to ensure that the country was run in an orderly manner. Many of the senior nobles on the council supported Richard. They were also reminded that Richard actually had a claim to the throne. A compromise was reached. Richard, Duke of York, was named as heir to the throne. Henry’s own son was to be overlooked and the right of inheritance was passed to Richard and his sons.

This position was soon challenged. There were people, such as  Margaret of Anjou , who did not want Richard as heir. Things were put in place to frustrate his attempts to govern. The situation became untenable. Eventually, Richard had had enough. He once again gathered his army. This time, war did break out.

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Wars of the Roses

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The Wars of the Roses (1455-1487) was a dynastic conflict between the English nobility and monarchy which led to four decades of intermittent battles, executions, and murder plots. The English elite was split into two camps, each centred around a branch of the descendants of Edward III of England (r. 1327-1377): the Yorks and Lancasters, who won.

• 1411 - 1460 Life of Richard, Duke of York .
• 1422 - 1461 First reign of Henry VI of England .
• 1436 Tax records show that Richard, Duke of York is the richest man in England .
• 1450 There is a rebellion in England led by Jack Cade.
• Feb 1452 - Mar 1452 Richard, Duke of York launches a failed by marching his army to Dartford.
• 13 Oct 1453 Birth of Edward, the only son of Henry VI of England .
• Mar 1454 Richard, Duke of York is made Protector of the Realm.
• 1455 - 1487 Wars of the Roses in England .
• 1455 Richard, Duke of York imprisons his rival the Earl of Somerset in the Tower of London .
• 22 May 1455 Richard, Duke of York wins the Battle of St. Albans and the Earl of Somerset is killed.
• Nov 1455 Richard, Duke of York is made the Protector of the Realm for a second time.
• 25 Mar 1458 ‘Loveday’, Henry VI of England 's attempt to reconcile the Yorkists and Lancastrians.
• 1459 The 'Parliament of Devils' identifies Richard, Duke of York as a traitor. The duke flees to Ireland .
• 12 Oct 1459 An army led by Queen Margaret defeats Richard, Duke of York at the Battle of Ludford Bridge.
• 10 Jul 1460 A Yorkist army led by Richard Neville, the Earl of Warwick and Edward, Earl of March defeats Queen Margaret’s army at Northampton. Henry VI of England is captured.
• 24 Oct 1460 The Act of Accord identifies Richard, Duke of York as the official heir of Henry VI of England .
• 30 Dec 1460 Richard, Duke of York is killed at the Battle of Wakefield.
• 1461 - 1470 First reign of Edward IV of England .
• 1461 - 1468 Harlech Castle in Wales is besieged by a Yorkist army during the Wars of the Roses .
• 17 Feb 1461 A Yorkist army, led by the Earl of Warwick, is defeated at St. Albans. Henry VI of England is released from captivity.
• 29 Mar 1461 Edward of York wins the bloody Battle of Towton. Henry VI of England is deposed.
• 1464 A Lancastrian army is defeated at Hexam by Edward IV of England .
• Jul 1465 The fugitive ex-king Henry VI of England is captured in Lancashire and imprisoned in the Tower of London .
• 14 Aug 1468 Harlech Castle in Wales finally surrenders to the Yorkists during the Wars of the Roses . The resistance of the Lancastrian garrison is commemorated in the popular song 'Men of Harlech'.
• 26 Jul 1469 The Earl of Warwick and Queen Margaret defeat King Edward IV’s army at Northampton in the Battle of Edgecote Moor.
• 1470 - 1471 Second reign of Henry VI of England .
• 1470 Birth of Prince Edward (eldest son of Edward IV of England ), the future Edward V of England .
• 11 Apr 1470 Henry VI of England is reinstated as king (the ‘Readeption’).
• Oct 1470 Second (English) coronation of Henry VI of England , this time in Saint Paul 's Cathedral.
• 1471 - 1483 Second reign of Edward IV of England .
• 14 Apr 1471 Edward IV of England wins the Battle of Barnet where the Earl of Warwick is killed.
• 4 May 1471 Henry VI of England ’s only son Edward is killed at the Battle of Tewkesbury. Henry VI is imprisoned in the Tower of London by Edward IV of England .
• 21 May 1471 Henry VI of England is murdered in the Tower of London .
• 1472 Edward IV of England makes his younger brother Richard the Duke of Gloucester.
• 1473 Birth of Edward of Middleham, son of Richard, Duke of Gloucester, future Richard III of England .
• 1476 Queen Margaret, wife of the late Henry VI of England , is released from confinement and returns to France.
• 18 Feb 1478 George, Duke of Clarence, the brother of Edward IV of England , is murdered in the Tower of London .n
• 1483 Richard III of England imprisons and then likely murders the two young sons of the late Edward IV, the 'Princes in the Tower'.
• Apr 1483 - Jun 1483 Reign of Edward V of England .
• 9 Apr 1483 Edward IV of England dies of a stroke at Westminster.
• 6 Jul 1483 Coronation of Richard III of England in Westminster Abbey.
• Nov 1483 A plot to overthrow Richard III of England is foiled. The Duke of Buckingham is executed.
• 9 Apr 1484 Death of Prince Edward, Richard III of England 's son and heir.
• Mar 1485 Death of Queen Anne Neville, wife of Richard III of England .
• 8 Aug 1485 Henry Tudor, future Henry VII of England , lands with an army of French mercenaries at Milford Haven in South Wales.
• 22 Aug 1485 Henry Tudor, future Henry VII of England , wins the Battle of Bosworth Field where Richard III of England is killed.
• 30 Oct 1485 Coronation of Henry VII of England in Westminster Abbey.
• 18 Jan 1486 Henry VII of England marries Elizabeth of York, daughter of Edward IV of England .n

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A Level History AQA 2B The Wars of the Roses 22 Essay Plans

Subject: History

Age range: 16+

Resource type: Assessment and revision

Last updated

2 October 2022

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This resource includes 22 Essay Plans of varying depth for the AQA Depth A Level Wars of the Rises course.

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Wars of the Roses lesson

Learning objectives

In this lesson, students will gain a chronological understanding of the Wars of the Roses in late medieval England. They will develop an awareness of the transformation of the causes and consequences of the conflict between the Houses of Lancaster and York, including the key personalities and event. Students will have the opportunity to achieve this through choosing their own method of learning, from reading and research options, as well as the chance to engage in extension activities. This lesson includes a self-marking quiz for students to demonstrate their learning.

How would you like to learn?

Option 1: reading.

Step 1: Download a copy of the reading questions worksheet below:

Step 2: Answer the set questions by reading the following article:

Option 2: Internet research

Download a copy of the research questions worksheet below and use the internet to complete the tables.

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Extension activities, resources for subscribers.

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