Constructing a would require researchers to consider how the innovation relates to each of the constructs in the model, to identify that make up the constructs and to consider their of the concepts (eg, how they conceive the prevailing work ethic or experience the managerial hierarchy). They may also be able to postulate between different constructs or concepts or decide to focus on particular aspects of the model, which they could explore conceptually using the literature. Their research design would be influenced by their areas of interest, which would, in turn, determine their research methods. The findings could allow them to modify their model with evidence-based relationships and new concepts.
Qualitative research’s “uneasy relationship with theory” 4 may be due to several misconceptions. One possible misconception is that qualitative research aims to build theory and thus does not need theoretical grounding. The reality is that all qualitative research methods, not just Grounded Theory studies focused on theory building, may lead to theory construction. 16 Similarly, all types of qualitative research, including Grounded Theory studies, should be guided by research frameworks. 16
Not using a research framework may also be due to misconceptions that qualitative research aims to understand people’s perspectives and experiences without examining them from a particular theoretical perspective or that theoretical foundations may influence researchers’ interpretations of participants’ meanings. In fact, in the same way that participants’ meanings vary, qualitative researchers’ interpretations (as opposed to descriptions) of participants’ meaning-making will differ. 32 , 33 Research frameworks thus provide a frame of reference for “making sense of the data.” 34
Studies informed by well-defined research frameworks can make a world of difference in alleviating misconceptions. Good qualitative reporting requires research frameworks that make explicit the combination of relevant theories, theoretical constructs and concepts that will permeate every aspect of the research. Irrespective of the term used, research frameworks are critical components of reporting not only qualitative but also all types of research.
In memory of Martie Sanders: supervisor, mentor, and colleague. My deepest gratitude for your unfailing support and guidance. I feel your loss.
Conflicts of Interest: None.
In academic research, conceptual frameworks serve as essential blueprints, guiding scholars through the complex landscape of their studies. This article will explore how to construct powerful conceptual frameworks that elevate research design and execution.
Whether a seasoned researcher or new to academia, you’ll learn to craft frameworks that clarify objectives, map relationships between variables, and provide a solid foundation for data collection and analysis.
Ready to transform your approach to research design?
Let’s explore the critical role of conceptual frameworks in shaping successful research projects!
A conceptual framework is a structured approach to organizing and presenting the key ideas, theories, and relationships that underpin a research study or academic argument.
It serves as a roadmap for the researcher, guiding the investigation and helping to connect various concepts logically and coherently.
For example, in a study examining the factors influencing student academic performance, a conceptual framework might include concepts such as socioeconomic status, parental involvement, teacher quality, and school resources. The framework would illustrate how these factors are thought to interact and influence the outcome of academic performance.
Developing a conceptual framework is a crucial step in the research process that helps researchers organize their thoughts, identify key variables, and visualize the relationships between different concepts in their study.
This process involves synthesizing existing literature, personal observations, and theoretical knowledge to create a structured representation of the research problem and its potential solutions.
A well-crafted conceptual framework serves as a roadmap for the entire research project, guiding the researcher through data collection, analysis, and interpretation.
It also helps in communicating complex ideas to readers, making the research more accessible and understandable.
By clearly defining the key concepts and their interconnections, researchers can ensure that their study remains focused and coherent throughout its execution.
Developing a conceptual framework is an iterative process that often evolves as the research progresses. It requires critical thinking, creativity, and a deep understanding of the subject matter. Researchers must be prepared to revise and refine their framework as they gain new insights or encounter unexpected findings during their study.
Creating a conceptual framework not only benefits the researcher but also adds credibility to the research by demonstrating a thoughtful and systematic approach to addressing the research question. It helps in identifying potential gaps in existing knowledge and can highlight areas where the study may contribute to the broader field of research.
Here’s a step-by-step guide can create a conceptual framework.
Related reading: How to write a research proposal
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Selecting a research question is the crucial first step in developing a conceptual framework. This step lays the foundation for your entire research project and guides the development of your conceptual framework.
Here’s a detailed explanation of this step:
The research question is the central inquiry that your study aims to answer. It should be clear, focused, and relevant to your field of study. When selecting your research question:
1. Identify your area of interest:
Begin by considering topics that genuinely interest you within your field. This ensures that you’ll remain motivated throughout the research process.
2. Review existing literature:
Conduct a preliminary literature review to understand what’s already known about your topic and identify gaps in current knowledge.
3. Consider relevance and significance:
Ensure that your question addresses a meaningful issue or problem in your field. It should contribute to existing knowledge or have practical implications.
4. Assess feasibility:
Consider whether you have access to the necessary resources, data, and time to answer the question effectively.
5. Be specific:
Narrow down your question to make it manageable. Avoid overly broad or vague questions that could lead to unfocused research.
6. Formulate the question:
Craft your question using clear, concise language. It should be open-ended enough to allow for in-depth exploration but specific enough to guide your research.
7. Test your question:
Ask yourself if the question can be researched, analyzed, and potentially answered within the scope of your study.
For example, instead of a broad question like “How does social media affect teenagers?”, you might refine it to “How does daily Instagram use impact self-esteem in female high school students aged 14-18 in urban areas?”
This step is crucial in developing your conceptual framework as it helps clarify the relationships you’ll be exploring in your research. Let’s break down each component:
These are the factors you manipulate or control in your study. They are presumed to cause or influence the dependent variable. In your conceptual framework, independent variables are typically positioned on the left or at the beginning of your model.
For example, in a study on academic performance, independent variables might include:
These are the outcomes or effects you’re measuring in your study. They are influenced by the independent variables. In your conceptual framework, dependent variables are usually positioned on the right or at the end of your model.
Using the same example, the dependent variable might be:
These are variables that affect the strength or direction of the relationship between independent and dependent variables. They can amplify or diminish the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable.
For instance, a moderator in our academic performance study could be:
These variables explain how or why an independent variable affects the dependent variable. They serve as a link in the causal chain between the independent and dependent variables.
An example of a mediator in our study might be:
The key difference is that moderators affect the strength of the relationship, while mediators explain the process through which the independent variable influences the dependent variable.
These are variables that you hold constant or control for in your study to ensure that they don’t interfere with the relationship between your main variables of interest. They help isolate the effects of your independent variables on the dependent variables.
In our academic performance example, control variables might include:
When selecting and defining these variables:
Related reading: How to find research articles
Determining the cause-and-effect relationship is a critical step in developing your conceptual framework. This step involves identifying and clarifying how your independent variables (causes) are expected to influence your dependent variables (effects).
1. Identify potential causal relationships:
Based on your research question and the variables you’ve selected, hypothesize how your independent variables might affect your dependent variables. Consider both direct and indirect relationships.
2. Review existing theories and literature:
Examine established theories and previous research in your field to support your hypothesized relationships. This helps ground your framework in existing knowledge and can provide insights into potential causal mechanisms.
3. Consider the direction of relationships:
Determine whether the relationships are positive (as one variable increases, the other increases) or negative (as one variable increases, the other decreases).
4. Account for complexity:
Recognize that cause-and-effect relationships in social sciences are often complex. Multiple causes might lead to a single effect, or a single cause might have multiple effects.
5. Consider time factors:
Think about whether the effects are immediate or if there’s a time lag between the cause and the effect. This is particularly important in longitudinal studies.
6. Examine potential mediators and moderators:
Consider how mediator variables might explain the mechanism of the cause-effect relationship, and how moderator variables might influence the strength or direction of these relationships.
7. Be aware of spurious relationships:
Consider whether any apparent cause-effect relationships might be due to other, unmeasured variables. This is where your control variables become important.
8. Use logical reasoning:
Ensure that your proposed cause-effect relationships make logical sense and can be explained theoretically.
9. Consider alternative explanations:
Think critically about other possible explanations for the relationships you’re proposing. This helps in developing a more robust framework.
10. Visualize the relationships:
Start sketching out how these cause-and-effect relationships might look in a diagram. This can help you see potential gaps or inconsistencies in your logic.
Remember, at this stage, you’re proposing these relationships based on theory and prior research. Your actual study will test these proposed cause-and-effect relationships. Be prepared to revise your framework if your findings don’t support your initial hypotheses.
An example of a conceptual framework can help illustrate how all the elements we’ve discussed come together.
Let’s use our academic performance study to create a sample conceptual framework.
Research Question:
“How do study hours and teaching methods affect high school students’ academic performance, and what role does student motivation play in this relationship?”
Conceptual Framework Example:
Explanation of the framework:
1. Independent Variables:
2. Dependent Variable:
3. Mediator:
4. Moderator:
5. Control Variables:
Proposed Relationships:
This conceptual framework visually represents the hypothesized relationships between variables.
It shows how study hours and teaching methods (independent variables) are expected to influence academic performance (dependent variable), with the understanding of the subject matter as a mediator.
Student motivation serves as a moderator, potentially affecting the strength of these relationships.
The framework also acknowledges the presence of control variables, which are important for the study but not the primary focus of the research question.
Developing a conceptual framework is a critical step in research, providing structure and clarity to complex investigations. This article has outlined key steps in creating robust frameworks, emphasizing variable selection, relationship determination, and visual representation.
A well-constructed framework, as illustrated in our academic performance example, integrates various elements into a comprehensive model.
It’s important to remember that conceptual frameworks are dynamic, evolving with new insights.
Ultimately, they serve as invaluable tools, guiding research processes and effectively communicating ideas, thus forming a solid foundation for knowledge advancement in any field.
What is a conceptual framework in research.
A conceptual framework in research is a structured approach to organizing and presenting the theoretical and conceptual underpinnings of a study. It visually or narratively explains the main variables, concepts, or constructs in a research project and how they are expected to relate to one another. Essentially, it’s a researcher’s map of the territory they plan to explore, showing the anticipated relationships between key elements of their study.
The three main components of a conceptual framework in research are:
The three main types of conceptual frameworks in research are:
Theoretical and conceptual frameworks serve different roles in research. A theoretical framework focuses on existing theories relevant to the research topic , providing a broader context for understanding the problem. It draws from multiple theories to explain phenomena and positions the study within the larger body of knowledge in the field.
A conceptual framework, however , is specific to the particular study being conducted. It identifies and defines the key variables and concepts in the study, showing how these variables are expected to relate to each other. While it often incorporates elements from the theoretical framework, it applies them to the specific research context.
The conceptual framework is more practical, serving as a roadmap for the study by guiding data collection, analysis, and interpretation. It helps researchers visualize relationships between variables and clarify their hypotheses, bridging the gap between broad theories and the practical aspects of the research.
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Published on 14 February 2020 by Shona McCombes . Revised on 10 October 2022.
A theoretical framework is a foundational review of existing theories that serves as a roadmap for developing the arguments you will use in your own work.
Theories are developed by researchers to explain phenomena, draw connections, and make predictions. In a theoretical framework, you explain the existing theories that support your research, showing that your work is grounded in established ideas.
In other words, your theoretical framework justifies and contextualises your later research, and it’s a crucial first step for your research paper , thesis, or dissertation . A well-rounded theoretical framework sets you up for success later on in your research and writing process.
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Why do you need a theoretical framework, how to write a theoretical framework, structuring your theoretical framework, example of a theoretical framework, frequently asked questions about theoretical frameworks.
Before you start your own research, it’s crucial to familiarise yourself with the theories and models that other researchers have already developed. Your theoretical framework is your opportunity to present and explain what you’ve learned, situated within your future research topic.
There’s a good chance that many different theories about your topic already exist, especially if the topic is broad. In your theoretical framework, you will evaluate, compare, and select the most relevant ones.
By “framing” your research within a clearly defined field, you make the reader aware of the assumptions that inform your approach, showing the rationale behind your choices for later sections, like methodology and discussion . This part of your dissertation lays the foundations that will support your analysis, helping you interpret your results and make broader generalisations .
To create your own theoretical framework, you can follow these three steps:
The first step is to pick out the key terms from your problem statement and research questions . Concepts often have multiple definitions, so your theoretical framework should also clearly define what you mean by each term.
To investigate this problem, you have identified and plan to focus on the following problem statement, objective, and research questions:
Problem : Many online customers do not return to make subsequent purchases.
Objective : To increase the quantity of return customers.
Research question : How can the satisfaction of company X’s online customers be improved in order to increase the quantity of return customers?
By conducting a thorough literature review , you can determine how other researchers have defined these key concepts and drawn connections between them. As you write your theoretical framework, your aim is to compare and critically evaluate the approaches that different authors have taken.
After discussing different models and theories, you can establish the definitions that best fit your research and justify why. You can even combine theories from different fields to build your own unique framework if this better suits your topic.
Make sure to at least briefly mention each of the most important theories related to your key concepts. If there is a well-established theory that you don’t want to apply to your own research, explain why it isn’t suitable for your purposes.
Apart from summarising and discussing existing theories, your theoretical framework should show how your project will make use of these ideas and take them a step further.
You might aim to do one or more of the following:
A theoretical framework can sometimes be integrated into a literature review chapter , but it can also be included as its own chapter or section in your dissertation. As a rule of thumb, if your research involves dealing with a lot of complex theories, it’s a good idea to include a separate theoretical framework chapter.
There are no fixed rules for structuring your theoretical framework, but it’s best to double-check with your department or institution to make sure they don’t have any formatting guidelines. The most important thing is to create a clear, logical structure. There are a few ways to do this:
As in all other parts of your research paper , thesis, or dissertation , make sure to properly cite your sources to avoid plagiarism .
To get a sense of what this part of your thesis or dissertation might look like, take a look at our full example .
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While a theoretical framework describes the theoretical underpinnings of your work based on existing research, a conceptual framework allows you to draw your own conclusions, mapping out the variables you may use in your study and the interplay between them.
A literature review and a theoretical framework are not the same thing and cannot be used interchangeably. While a theoretical framework describes the theoretical underpinnings of your work, a literature review critically evaluates existing research relating to your topic. You’ll likely need both in your dissertation .
A theoretical framework can sometimes be integrated into a literature review chapter , but it can also be included as its own chapter or section in your dissertation . As a rule of thumb, if your research involves dealing with a lot of complex theories, it’s a good idea to include a separate theoretical framework chapter.
A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources (such as books, journal articles, and theses) related to a specific topic or research question .
It is often written as part of a dissertation , thesis, research paper , or proposal .
If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the ‘Cite this Scribbr article’ button to automatically add the citation to our free Reference Generator.
McCombes, S. (2022, October 10). What is a Theoretical Framework? | A Step-by-Step Guide. Scribbr. Retrieved 3 September 2024, from https://www.scribbr.co.uk/thesis-dissertation/the-theoretical-framework/
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If you are looking for a document in the Dissertation Center or Applied Doctoral Center and can't find it please contact your Chair or The Center for Teaching and Learning at [email protected]
Research frameworks provide a foundation for your study and keeps it focused and concise. Think of a framework as a roadmap or blueprint for developing your study and supporting research.
This short video series will help you help you identify, locate, and retrieve theoretical and conceptual frameworks through the library databases and/or Google.
Theoretical frameworks provide a particular perspective, or lens, through which to examine a topic. There are many different lenses, such as psychological theories, social theories, organizational theories and economic theories, which may be used to define concepts and explain phenomena. Sometimes these frameworks may come from an area outside of your immediate academic discipline. Using a theoretical framework for your dissertation can help you to better analyze past events by providing a particular set of questions to ask, and a particular perspective to use when examining your topic.
Traditionally, Ph.D. and Applied Degree research must include relevant theoretical framework(s) to frame, or inform, every aspect of the dissertation. Further, Ph.D. dissertations should make an original contribution to the field by adding support for the theory, or, conversely, demonstrating ways in which the theory may not be as explanatory as originally thought. You can learn more about the theoretical framework requirements in the NU Dissertation Center .
It can be difficult to find scholarly work that takes a particular theoretical approach because articles, books, and book chapters are typically described according to the topics they tackle rather than the methods they use to tackle them. Further, there is no single database or search technique for locating theoretical information. However, the suggestions below provide techniques for locating possible theoretical frameworks and theorists in the Library databases. In addition to your Library research, you should discuss possible theories your Dissertation Chair to ensure they align with your study. Also, keep in mind that you will probably find and discard several potential theoretical frameworks before one is finally chosen.
A conceptual framework provides the concept or set of related concepts supporting the basis or foundation of a study. It creates a conceptual model for possible strategies or courses of action identified as important for researching a particular problem or issue. While a conceptual framework is often referred to interchangeably with a theoretical framework, it maintains a distinct purpose. A conceptual framework is used to clarify concepts, organize ideas, and identify relationships with which to frame a study. Concepts are logically developed and organized to support an overall framework and often exhibited graphically within dissertation research. Note that a dissertation may include both a theoretical framework and a conceptual framework.
The suggestions below provide techniques for locating possible conceptual frameworks in the Library databases. Note when examples may use the term "theoretical framework," you may change your search terms to "conceptual framework." In addition to your Library research, you should discuss possible frameworks your Dissertation Chair to ensure they align with your study. Also, keep in mind that you will probably find and discard several potential conceptual frameworks before one is finally chosen.
Biographical dictionaries can be useful if you are looking for basic background information on a particular theorist or scientist.
Content: A reference database useful for accessing scholarly definitions, background and contextual information. Subjects covered include art, biography, business, economics, education, history, literature, music, psychology, religion, and science and technology.
Purpose: An excellent starting point for brainstorming a research topic and building out your initial search terms list.
Special Features: Mindmap; related articles; image search
Content: Ebooks with coverage across all academic disciplines. The collection offers a critical mass of more than 150,000 foundational scholarly ebooks with balanced quantity and quality to improve teaching, learning and research workflow and outcomes.
Purpose: Provides access to multidisciplinary ebooks for download or to be read online.
Special Features: Browse by subject option; highlight and take notes in text.
Help using this database.
Content: Reference e-book collection
Purpose: Users may read the full text of e-books from a range of academic disciplines
Special Features: Includes a visualization tool and browse-by-topic feature that aids in brainstorming topics, a Lexile feature that filters texts by difficulty, the ability to highlight and add notes to text, and a read-aloud feature.
Content : Books, chapters, and peer-reviewed content about a diverse range of topics.
Purpose: Users may access full text, and authoritative information about many topics.
Special Features: Users may explore topics and subjects.
Content: Reference sources, primarily books but also videos and business cases.
Purpose: Use for finding reference sources like encyclopedias and handbooks that provide contextual or explanatory material.
Special Features: Includes Sage Navigator
Use the Library’s e-book databases to gather background information on a particular theory or theorist. Since the e-book databases will contain fewer resources than a database containing thousands of scholarly journal articles, it is best to keep your search terms a little more broad.
For example, a search for education theory in the Ebook Central database results in many relevant e-books, as shown below. Expanding the Table of Contents will provide additional details about the e-book.
Encyclopedias and handbooks will also provide reliable background information on particular theories. For example, a search for cognitive developmental theory in the Credo Reference database results in a number of reference entries which discuss the history of the theory, identify relevant theorists, and cite seminal research studies.
You may search for theorists and theoretical information using Google and Google Scholar , as well. However, please keep in mind that you will need to be more discriminating when it comes to using material found on open access websites. We recommend reviewing the Website Evaluation guidelines when considering online sources.
One method that may be used in Google is limiting your search by a particular domain name. If a website ends in .org, .gov, or .edu, it is more likely to be a scholarly source. If it ends in .com or .net it is less likely to be a scholarly source. In the search below, for example, we have limited our search for "leadership theories" to just those websites ending with .edu. You may also find this domain limiter under Tools>Advanced Search.
Note: Limiting to a particular domain is not necessary in Google Scholar, as all results in Google Scholar may be considered scholarly. This may include articles, theses, books, abstracts and court opinions, material from academic publishers, professional societies, online repositories, universities and other web sites.
For additional information, see the following:
Content: National University & NCU student dissertations and literature reviews.
Purpose: Use for foundational research, to locate test instruments and data, and more.
Special Features: Search by advisor (chair), degree, degree level, or department. Includes a read-aloud feature.
Content: Global student dissertations and literature reviews.
Special Features: Search by advisor (chair), degree, degree level, or department. Includes a read-aloud feature
The ProQuest Dissertations & Theses database (PQDT) is the world's most comprehensive collection of dissertations and theses. It is the database of record for graduate research, with over 2.3 million dissertations and theses included from around the world.
Since most doctoral research requires a theoretical framework, looking at completed dissertations related to your topic is an effective way to identify relevant theories and theorists. ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global provides access to over 3 million full text doctoral dissertations and graduate theses. You may limit your search to only doctoral dissertations by using the Advanced Search screen. Look at the table of contents or abstract for reference to theoretical framework, as shown below. The dissertation’s references/bibliography will have a full citation to the original theorist’s research.
Content: Scholarly journals, e-books, videos and more.
Purpose: A key multidisciplinary database for most topics. It is one of the library’s main search engines and the most comprehensive single search.
Note: Certain library databases and publisher content are not searchable in NavigatorSearch, and individual databases may need to be searched to retrieve information due to unique content. NavigatorSearch can be found at https://resources.nu.edu .
On the NavigatorSearchscreen, include theor* as one your search terms, as shown below. It will retrieve results that include one of the following keywords: theory, theories, theoretical, theorist, or theorists . It is important to keep in mind, however, that this is not a foolproof method for locating theoretical frameworks. Scholars will often cite theory or theorists in order to refute them, or because they are saying something that's tangentially related, or they may even just refer to theory briefly in passing. In our example, we have selected the field for AB Abstract because if theory is mentioned within the abstract, the study is more likely to take a theoretical approach.
As shown below, results from our example search clearly include articles which apply theory to the topic of curriculum design.
Remember to look past the article title. Theoretical information may be mentioned in a subheading, or referred to elsewhere in the document. Use the FIND feature in your PDF viewer or internet browser to scan the document for terms such as theor* (to pull up theory, theorist, theoretical), framework, conceptual, perspective , etc., as shown below.
Content: Books, reference works, journal articles, and instructional videos on research methods and design.
Purpose: Use to learn more about qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods research.
Special Features: Includes a methods map, project planner, and "which stats" test
SAGE Research Methods is a multimedia database containing more than 1,000 books, reference works, journal articles, and instructional videos covering every step of the research process. It includes e-books and e-book chapters which may help you better understand the theoretical framework aspect of your research study. A selection of resources is included below:
Searching in SAGE Research Methods
Use the main search bar to locate information about theoretical frameworks. Search the general phrase "theoretical frameworks," or the name of a specific theoretical framework like "social cognitive theory," in quotation marks to yield results with that specific phrase. See the example below.
You may also browse content in this database by Discipline . Select Browse on the top navigation to view a list of key topics.
Content: Citations and articles in multi-disciplines not found through a NavigatorSearch.
Purpose: Used to conduct topic searches as well as find additional resources that have cited a specific resource (citation network).
You may conduct a Cited Reference Search in Web of Science to find articles that cite a primary theorist in your area. These articles are likely to tackle your topic through your theoretical lens, or will point you toward another article that does. To access Web of Knowledge, go to A-Z Databases from the Library’s home page.
On the Web of Science home page, click on Cited Reference Search to search for articles that cite a person's work.
Enter the name of a key theorist in your area (in our example, John Dewey) in the format they specify (in this case Dewey J*), as shown below, and press "Search."
On the results screen, select the appropriate Web of Science category under Refine Results. For example, we could select “Education Educational Research” and then click “Refine.” You may wish to further refine by Document Type, Research Area, Author, etc. (also located on the left hand menu). Sorting your results by “Times Cited - Oldest to Newest" is an effective way to discover the most frequently cited works.
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Theoretical frameworks can be confounding. They are supposed to be very important, but it is not always clear what they are or why you need them. Using ideas from Chaps. 1 and 2 , we describe them as local theories that are custom-designed for your study. Although they might use parts of larger well-known theories, they are created by individual researchers for particular studies. They are developed through the cyclic process of creating more precise and meaningful hypotheses. Building directly on constructs from the previous chapters, you can think of theoretical frameworks as equivalent to the most compelling, complete rationales you can develop for the predictions you make. Theoretical frameworks are important because they do lots of work for you. They incorporate the literature into your rationale, they explain why your study matters, they suggest how you can best test your predictions, and they help you interpret what you find. Your theoretical framework creates an essential coherence for your study and for the paper you are writing to report the study.
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As the name implies, a theoretical framework is a type of theory. We will define it as the custom-made theory that focuses specifically on the hypotheses you want to test and the research questions you want to answer. It is custom-made for your study because it explains why your predictions are plausible. It does no more and no less. Building directly on Chap. 2 , as you develop more complete rationales for your predictions, you are actually building a theory to support your predictions. Our goal in this chapter is for you to become comfortable with what theoretical frameworks are, with how they relate to the general concept of theory, with what role they play in scientific inquiry, and with why and how to create one for your study.
As you read this chapter, it will be helpful to remember that our definitions of terms in this book, such as theoretical framework, are based on our view of scientific inquiry as formulating, testing, and revising hypotheses. We define theoretical framework in ways that continue the coherent story we lay out across all phases of scientific inquiry and all the chapters this book. You are likely to find descriptions of theoretical frameworks in other sources that differ in some ways from our description. In addition, you are likely to see other terms that we would include as synonyms for theoretical framework, including conceptual framework. We suggest that when you encounter these special terms, make sure you understand how the authors are defining them.
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We begin by stepping back and considering how theoretical frameworks fit within the concept of theory, as usually defined. There are many definitions of theory; you can find a huge number simply by googling “theory.” Educational researchers and theorists often propose their own definitions but many of these are quite similar. Praetorius and Charalambous ( 2022 ) reviewed a number of definitions to set the stage for examining theories of teaching. Here are a few, beginning with a dictionary definition:
Lexico.com Dictionary (Oxford University Press, 2021 ): “A supposition or a system of ideas intended to explain something, especially one based on general principles independent of the thing to be explained.”
Biddle and Anderson ( 1986 ): “By scientific theory we mean the system of concepts and propositions that is used to represent, think about, and predict observable events. Within a mature science that theory is also explanatory and formalized. It does not represent ultimate ‘truth,’ however; indeed, it will be superseded by other theories presently. Instead, it represents the best explanation we have, at present, for those events we have so far observed” (p. 241).
Kerlinger ( 1964 ): “A theory is a set of interrelated constructs (concepts), definitions and propositions which presents a systematic view of phenomena by specifying relations among variables, with the purpose of explaining and predicting phenomena” (p. 11).
Colquitt and Zapata-Phelan ( 2007 ): The authors say that theories allow researchers to understand and predict outcomes of interest, describe and explain a process or sequence of events, raise consciousness about a specific set of concepts as well as prevent scholars from “being dazzled by the complexity of the empirical world by providing a linguistic tool for organizing it” (p. 1281).
For our purposes, it is important to notice two things that most definitions of theories share: They are descriptions of a connected set of facts and concepts, and they are created to predict and/or explain observed events. You can connect these ideas to Chaps. 1 and 2 by noticing that the language for the descriptors of scientific inquiry we suggested in Chap. 1 are reflected in the definitions of theories. In particular, notice in the definitions two of the descriptors: “Observing something and trying to explain why it is the way it is” and “Updating everyone’s thinking in response to more and better information.” Notice also in the definitions the emphasis on the elements of a theory similar to the elements of a rationale described in Chap. 2 : definitions, variables, and mechanisms that explain relationships.
Before you continue reading, in your own words, write down a definition for “theoretical framework.”
There are strong similarities between building theories and doing scientific inquiry (formulating, testing, and revising hypotheses). In both cases, the researcher (or theorist) develops explanations for phenomena of interest. Building theories involves describing the concepts and conjectures that predict and later explain the events, and specifying the predictions by identifying the variables that will be measured. Doing scientific inquiry involves many of the same activities: formulating predictions for answers to questions about the research problem and building rationales to explain why the predictions are appropriate and reasonable.
As you move through the cycles described in Chap. 2 —cycles of asking questions, making predictions, writing out the reasons for these predictions, imagining how you would test the predictions, reading more about what scholars know and have hypothesized, revising your predictions (and maybe your questions), and so on—your theoretical rationales will become both more complete and more precise. They will become more complete as you find new arguments and new data in the literature and through talking with others, and they will become sharper as you remove parts of the rationales that originally seemed relevant but now create mostly distractions and noise. They will become increasingly customized local theories that support your predictions.
In the end, your framework should be as clean and frugal as possible without missing arguments or data that are directly relevant. In the language of mathematics, you should use an idea if and only if it makes your framework stronger, more convincing. On the one hand, including more than you need becomes a distraction and can confuse both you, as you try to conceptualize and conduct your research, and others, as they read your reports of your research. On the other hand, including less than you need means your rationale is not yet as convincing as it could be.
The set of rationales, blended together, constitute a precisely targeted custom-made theory that supports your predictions. Custom designing your rationales for your specific predictions means you probably will be drawing ideas from lots of sources and combining them in new ways. You are likely to end up with a unique local theory, a theoretical framework that has not been proposed in exactly the same way before.
A common misconception among beginning researchers is that they should borrow a theoretical framework from somewhere else, especially from well-known scholars who have theories named after them or well-known general theories of learning or teaching. You are likely to use ideas from these theories (e.g., Vygotsky’s theory of learning, Maslow’s theory of motivation, constructivist theories of learning), but you will combine specific ideas from multiple sources to create your own framework. When someone asks, “What theoretical framework are you using?” you would not say, “A Vygotskian framework.” Rather, you would say something like, “I created my framework by combining ideas from different sources so it explains why I am making these predictions.”
You should think of your theoretical framework as a potential contribution to the field, all on its own. Although it is unique to your study, there are elements of your framework that other researchers could draw from to construct theoretical frameworks for their studies, just as you drew from others’ frameworks. In rare cases, other researchers could use your framework as is. This might happen if they want to replicate your study or extend it in very specific ways. Usually, however, researchers borrow parts of frameworks or modify them in ways that better fit their own studies. And, just as you are doing with your own theoretical framework, those researchers will need to justify why borrowing or modifying parts of your framework will help them explain the predictions they are making.
Considering your theoretical framework as a contribution to the field means you should treat it as a central part of scientific inquiry, not just as a required step that must be completed before moving to the next phase. To be useful, the theoretical framework should be constructed as a critical part of conceptualizing and carrying out the research (Cai et al., 2019c ). This also means you should write out your framework as you are developing it. This will be a key part of your evolving research paper. Because your framework will be adjusted multiple times, your written document will go through many drafts.
If you are a graduate student, do not think of the potential audience for your written framework as only your advisor and committee members. Rather, consider your audience to be the larger community of education researchers. You will need to be sure all the key terms are defined and each part of your argument is clear, even to those who are not familiar with your study. This is one place where writing out your framework can benefit your study—it is easy to assume key terms are clear, but then you find out they are not so clear, even to you, when trying to communicate them. Failing to notice this lack of clarity can create lots of problems down the road.
Researchers have used a number of different metaphors to describe theoretical frameworks. Maxwell (2005) referred to a theoretical framework as a “coat closet” that provides “places to ‘hang’ data, showing their relationship to other data,” although he cautioned that “a theory that neatly organizes some data will leave other data disheveled and lying on the floor, with no place to put them” (p. 49). Lester (2005) referred to a framework as a “scaffold” (p. 458), and others have called it a “blueprint” (Grant & Osanloo, 2014). Eisenhart (1991) described the framework as a “skeletal structure of justification” (p. 209). Spangler and Williams (2019) drew an analogy to the role that a house frame provides in preventing the house from collapsing in on itself. What aspects of a theoretical framework does each of these metaphors capture? What aspects does each fail to capture? Which metaphor do you find best fits your definition of a theoretical framework? Why? Can you think of another metaphor to describe a theoretical framework?
Theoretical frameworks do lots of work for you. They have four primary purposes. They ensure (1) you have sound reasons to expect your predictions will be accurate, (2) you will craft appropriate methods to test your predictions, (3) you can interpret appropriately what you find, and (4) your interpretations will contribute to the accumulation of a knowledge base that can improve education. How do they do this?
In previous chapters and earlier in this chapter, we described how theoretical frameworks are built along with your predictions. In fact, the rationales you develop for convincing others (and yourself) that your predictions are accurate are used to refine your predictions, and vice versa. So, it is not surprising that your refined framework provides a rationale that is fully aligned with your predictions. In fact, you could think of your theoretical framework as your best explanation, at any given moment during scientific inquiry, for why you will find what you think you will find.
Throughout this book, we are using “explanation” in a broad sense. As we noted earlier, an explanation for why your predictions are accurate includes all the concepts and definitions about mechanisms (Kerlinger’s, 1964 definition of “theory”) that help you describe why you think the predictions you are making are the best predictions possible. The explanation also identifies and describes all the variables that make up your predictions, variables that will be measured to test your predictions.
Critical decisions you make to test your hypotheses form the methods for your scientific inquiry. As we have noted, imagining how you will test your hypotheses helps you decide whether the empirical observations you make can be compared with your predictions or whether you need to revise the methods (or your predictions). Remember, the theoretical framework is the coherent argument built from the rationales you develop as part of each hypothesis you formulate. Because each rationale explains why you make that prediction, it contains helpful cues for which methods would provide the fairest and most complete test of that prediction. In fact, your theoretical framework provides a logic against which you can check every aspect of the methods you imagine using.
You might find it helpful to ask yourself two questions as you think about which methods are best aligned with your theoretical framework. One is, “After reading my theoretical framework, will anyone be surprised by the methods I use?” If so, you should look back at your framework and make sure the predictions are clear and the rationales include all the reasons for your predictions. Your framework should telegraph the methods that make the most sense. The other question is, “Are there some predictions for which I can’t imagine appropriate methods?” If so, we recommend you return to your hypotheses—to your predictions and rationales (theoretical framework)—to make sure the predictions are phrased as precisely as possible and your framework is fully developed. In most cases, this will help you imagine methods that could be used. If not, you might need to revise your hypotheses.
Kerlinger ( 1964 ) stated, “A theory is a set of interrelated constructs (concepts), definitions and propositions which presents a systematic view of phenomena by specifying relations among variables, with the purpose of explaining and predicting phenomena” (p. 11). What role do definitions play in a theoretical framework and how do they help in crafting appropriate methods?
Sarah is in the beginning stages of developing a study. Her initial prediction is: There is a relationship between pedagogical content knowledge and ambitious teaching. She realizes that in order to craft appropriate measures, she needs to develop definitions of these constructs. Sarah’s original definitions are: Pedagogical content knowledge is knowledge about subject matter that is relevant to teaching. Ambitious teaching is teaching that is responsive to students’ thinking and develops a deep knowledge of content. Sarah recognizes that her prediction and her definitions are too broad and too general to work with. She wants to refine the definitions so they can guide the refinement of her prediction and the design of the study. Develop definitions of these two constructs that have clearer implications for the design and that would help Sarah to refine her prediction. (tip: Sarah may need to reduce the scope of her prediction by choosing to focus only on one aspect of pedagogical content knowledge and one aspect of ambitious teaching. Then, she can more precisely define those aspects.)
By providing rationales for your predictions, your theoretical framework explains why you think your predictions will be accurate. In education, researchers almost always find that if they make specific predictions (which they should), the predictions are not entirely accurate. This is a consequence of the fact that theoretical frameworks are never complete. Recall the definition of theories from Biddle and Anderson ( 1986 ): A theory “does not represent ultimate ‘truth,’ however; indeed, it will be superseded by other theories presently. Instead, it represents the best explanation we have, at present, for those events we have so far observed” (p. 241). If you have created your best developed and clearly stated theoretical framework that explains why you expected certain results, you can focus your interpretation on the ways in which your theoretical framework should be revised.
Focusing on realigning your theoretical framework with the data you collected produces the richest interpretation of your results. And it prevents you from making one of the most common errors of beginning researchers (and veteran researchers, as well): claiming that your results say more than they really do. Without this anchor to ground your interpretation of the data, it is easy to overgeneralize and make claims that go beyond the evidence.
In one of the definitions of theory presented earlier, Colquitt and Zapata-Phelan ( 2007 ) say that theories prevent scholars from “being dazzled by the complexity of the empirical world” (p. 1281). Theoretical frameworks keep researchers grounded by setting parameters within which the empirical world can be interpreted.
Find two published articles that explicitly present theoretical frameworks (not all articles do). Where do you see evidence of the researchers using their theoretical frameworks to inform, shape, and connect other parts of their articles?
Theoretical frameworks contain the arguments that define the contribution of research studies. They do this in two ways, by showing how your study extends what is known and by setting the parameters for your contribution.
Because your theoretical framework is built from what is already known or has been proposed, it situates your study in work that has occurred before. A clearly written framework shows readers how your study will take advantage of what is known to extend it further. It reveals what is new about what you are studying. The predictions that are generated from your framework are predictions that have never been made in quite the same way. They predict you will find something that has not been found previously in exactly this way. Your theoretical framework allows others to see the contributions that your study is likely to make even before the study has been conducted.
Earlier we noted that theoretical frameworks keep researchers grounded by setting parameters within which they should interpret their data. They do this by providing an initial explanation for why researchers expect to find particular results. The explanation is custom-built for each study. This means it uniquely explains the expected results. The results will almost surely turn out somewhat differently than predicted. Interpreting the data includes revising the initial explanation. So, you will end up with two versions of your theoretical framework, one that explains what you expected to find plus a second, updated framework that explains what you actually found.
The two frameworks—the initial version and the updated version—define the parameters of your study’s contribution. The difference between the two frameworks is what can be learned from your study. The first framework is a claim about what is known before you conduct your study about the phenomenon you are studying; the updated framework is a claim about how what is known has changed based on your results. It is the new aspects of the updated framework that capture the important contribution of your work.
Here is a brief example. Suppose you study the errors fourth graders make after receiving ordinary instruction on adding and subtracting decimal fractions. Based on empirical findings from past research, on theories of student learning, and on your own experience, you develop a rationale which predicts that a common error on “ragged” addition problems will be adding the wrong numerals. One of the reasons for this prediction is that students are likely to ignore the values of the digit positions and “line up” the numerals as they do with whole numbers. For instance, if they are asked to add 53.2 + .16, they are likely to answer either 5.48 or 54.8.
When you conduct your study, you present problems, handwritten, in both horizontal and vertical form. The horizontal form presents the numbers using the format shown above. The vertical form places one numeral over the other but not carefully aligned:
You find the predicted error occurs, but only for problems written in vertical form. To interpret these data, you look back at your theoretical framework and realize that students might ignore the value of the digits if the format reminded them of the way they lined up digits for whole number addition but might consider the value of the digits if they are forced to align the digits themselves, either by rewriting the problem or by just adding in their heads. A measure of what you (and others) learned from this study is the change in possible explanations (your theoretical frameworks). This does not mean your updated theoretical framework is “correct” or will make perfectly accurate predictions next time. But, it does mean that you are very likely moving toward more accurate predictions and toward a deeper understanding of how students think about adding decimal fractions.
Your theoretical framework serves as the anchor or center point around which all other aspects of your study should be aligned. This does not mean it is created first or that all other aspects are changed to align with the framework after it is created. The framework also changes as other aspects are considered. However, it is useful to always check alignment by beginning with the framework and asking whether other aspects are aligned and, if not, adjusting one or the other. This process of checking alignment is equally true when writing your evolving research paper as when planning and conducting your study.
How do you start the process? Because constructing a theoretical framework is a natural extension of constructing rationales for your predictions, you already started as soon as you began formulating hypotheses: making predictions for what you will find and writing down reasons for why you are making these predictions. In Chap. 2 , we talked about beginning this process. In this section, we will explore how you can continue building out your rationales into a full-fledged theoretical framework.
Building your framework will occur in phases and proceed through cycles of clarifying your questions, making more precise and explicit your predictions, articulating reasons for making these predictions, and imagining ways of testing the predictions. The major source for ideas that will shape the framework is the research literature. That said, conversations with colleagues and other experts can help clarify your predictions and the rationales you develop to justify the predictions.
As you read relevant literature, you can ask: What have researchers found that help me predict what I will find? How have they explained their findings, and how might those explanations help me develop reasons for my predictions? Are there new ways to interpret past results so they better inform my predictions? Are there ways to look across previous results (and claims) and see new patterns that I can use to refine my predictions and enrich my rationales? How can theories that have credibility in the research community help me understand what I might find and help me explain why this is the case? As we have said, this process will go back and forth between clarifying your predictions, adjusting your rationales, reading, clarifying more, adjusting, reading, and so on.
In Chap. 2 , we followed Martha, a doctoral student in mathematics education, as she was working out the topic for her study, asking questions she wanted to answer, predicting the answers, and developing rationales for these predictions. Our story concluded with a research question, a sample set of predictions, and some reasons for Martha’s predictions. The question was: “Under what conditions do middle school teachers who lack conceptual knowledge of linear functions benefit from five 2-hour learning opportunity (LO) sessions that engage them in conceptual learning of linear functions as assessed by changes in their teaching toward a more conceptual emphasis of linear functions?” Her predictions focused on particular conditions that would affect the outcomes in particular ways. She was beginning to build rationales for these predictions by returning to the literature and identifying previous research and theory that were relevant. We continue the story here.
Imagine Martha continuing to read as she develops her theoretical framework—the rationales for her predictions. She tweaks some of her predictions based on what other researchers have already found. As she continues reading, she comes across some related literature on learning opportunities for teachers. A number of articles describe the potential of another form of LOs that might help teachers teach mathematics more conceptually—analyzing videos of mathematics lessons.
The data suggested that teachers can improve their teaching by analyzing videos of other teachers’ lessons as well as their own. However, the results were mixed so researchers did not seem to know exactly what makes the difference. Martha also read that teachers who already can analyze videos of lessons and spontaneously describe the mathematics that students are struggling with and offer useful suggestions for how to improve learning opportunities for students teach toward more conceptual learning goals, and their students learn more (Kersting et al., 2010 , 2012 ). These findings caught Martha’s attention because it is unusual to find correlates with conceptual teaching and better achievement. What is not known, realized Martha, is whether teachers who learn to analyze videos in this way, through specially designed LOs, would look like the teachers who already could analyze them. Would teachers who learned to analyze videos teach more conceptually?
It occurred to Martha she could bring these lines of research together by extending what is known along both lines. Recall our earlier suggestion of looking across the literature and noticing new patterns that can inform your work. Martha thought about studying how, exactly, these two skills are related: analyzing videos in particular ways and teaching conceptually. Would the relationships reported in the literature hold up for teachers who learn to describe the mathematics students are struggling with and make useful suggestions for improving students’ LOs?
Martha was now conflicted. She was well on her way to developing a testable hypothesis about the effects of learning about linear functions, but she was really intrigued by the work on analyzing videos of teaching. In addition, she saw several advantages of switching to this new topic:
The research question could be formulated quite easily. It would be something like: “What are the relationships between learning to analyze videos of mathematics teaching in particular ways (specified from prior research) and teaching for conceptual understanding?”
She could imagine predicting the answers to this question based directly on previous research. She would predict connections between particular kinds of analysis skills and levels of conceptual teaching of mathematics in ways that employed these skills.
The level of conceptual teaching, a challenging construct to define with her previous topic (the effects of professional development on the teaching of linear functions), was already defined in the work on analyzing videos of mathematics teaching, so that would solve a big problem. The definition foregrounded particular sets of behaviors and skills such as identifying key learning moments in a lesson and focusing on students’ thinking about the key mathematical idea during these moments. In other words, Martha saw ways to adapt a definition that had already been used and tested.
The issue of transfer—another challenging issue in her original hypothesis—was addressed more directly in this setting because the learning environment—analyzing videos of classroom teaching—is quite close to the classroom environment in which participants’ conceptual teaching would be observed.
Finally, the nature of learning opportunities, an aspect of her original idea she still needed to work through, had been explored in previous studies on this new topic, and connections were found between studying videos and changes in teaching.
Given all these advantages, Martha decided to change her topic and her research question. We applaud this decision for two major reasons. First, Martha’s interest grew as she explored this new topic. She became excited about conducting a study that might answer the research question she posed. It is always good to be passionate about what you study. Second, Martha was more likely to contribute important new insights if she could extend what is already known rather than explore a new area. Exploring something quite new requires lots of effort defining terms, creating measures, making new predictions, developing reasons for the predictions, and so on. Sometimes, exploring a new area has payoffs. But, as a beginning researcher, we suggest you take advantage of work that has already been done and extend it in creative ways.
Although Martha’s idea of extending previous work came with real advantages, she still faced a number of challenges. A first, major challenge was to decide whether she could build a rationale that would predict learning to analyze videos caused more conceptual teaching. Or, could she only build a rationale that would predict that there was a relationship between changes in analyzing videos and level of conceptual teaching? Perhaps a cause-effect relationship existed but in the opposite direction: If teachers learned to teach more conceptually, their analysis of teaching videos would improve. Although most of the literature described learning to analyze videos as the potential cause of teaching conceptually, Martha did not believe there was sufficient evidence to build a rationale for this prediction. Instead, she decided to first determine if a relationship existed and, if so, to understand the relationship. Then, if warranted, she could develop and test a hypothesis of causation in a future study. In fact, the direction of the causation might become clearer when she understood the relationship more clearly.
A second major challenge was whether to study the relationship as it existed or as one (or both) of the constructs was changing. Past research had explored the relationship as it existed, without inducing changes in either analyzing videos or teaching conceptually. So, Martha decided she could learn more about the relationship if one of the constructs was changing in a planned way. Because researchers had argued that teachers’ analysis of video could be changed with appropriate LOs, and because changing teachers’ teaching practices has resisted simple interventions, Martha decided to study the relationship as she facilitated changes in teachers’ analysis of videos. This would require gathering data on the relationship at more than one point in time.
Even after resolving these thorny issues, Martha faced many additional challenges. Should she predict a closer relationship between learning to analyze video and teaching for conceptual understanding before teachers began learning to analyze videos or after? Perhaps the relationship increases over time because conceptual teaching often changes slowly. Should she predict a closer relationship if the content of the videos teachers analyzed was the same as the content they would be teaching? Should she predict the relationship will be similar across pairs of similar topics? Should she predict that some analysis skills will show closer relationships to levels of conceptual teaching than others? These questions and others occurred to Martha as she was formulating her predictions, developing justifications for her predictions, and considering how she would test the predictions.
Based on her reading and discussions with colleagues, Martha phrased her initial predictions as follows:
There will be a significant positive correlation between teachers’ performance on analysis of videos and the extent to which they create conceptual learning opportunities for their students both before and after proposed learning experiences.
The relationship will be stronger:
Before the proposed opportunities to learn to analyze videos of teaching;
When the videos and the instruction are about similar mathematical topics; and,
When the videos analyzed display conceptual misunderstandings among students.
Of the video analysis skills that will be assessed, the two that will show the strongest relationship are spontaneously describing (1) the mathematics that students are struggling with and (2) useful suggestions for how to improve the conceptual learning opportunities for students.
Martha’s rationales for these predictions—her theoretical framework—evolved along with her predictions. We will not detail the framework here, but we will note that the rationale for the first prediction was based on findings from past research. In particular, the prediction is generated by reasoning that if there has been no special intervention, the tendency to analyze videos in particular ways and to teach conceptually develop together. This might explain Kersting’s findings described earlier. The second and third predictions were based on the literature on teachers’ learning, especially their learning from analyzing videos of teaching.
Before leaving Martha at this point in her journey, we want to make an important point about the change she made to her research topic. Changes like this occur quite often as researchers do the hard intellectual work of developing testable hypotheses that guide research studies. When this happens to you, it can feel like you have lost ground. You might feel like you wasted your time on the original topic. In Chap. 1 , we described inevitable “failure” when engaged in scientific inquiry. Failure is often associated with realizing the data you collected do not come close to supporting your predictions. But a common kind of failure occurs when researchers realize the direction they have been pursuing should change before they collect data. This happened in Martha’s case because she came across a topic that was more intriguing to her and because it helped solve some problems she was facing with the previous topic. This is an example of “failing productively” (see Chap. 1 ). Martha did not succeed in pursuing her original idea, but while she was recognizing the problems, she was also seeing new possibilities.
We will use Martha’s experience to be more specific about the back-and-forth process in which you will engage as you flesh out your framework. We mentioned earlier your review of the literature as a major source of ideas and evidence that will affect your framework.
One of the best sources for helping you specify your predictions are studies that have been conducted on related topics. The closer to your topic, the more helpful will be the evidence for anticipating what you will find. Many beginning researchers worry they will locate a study just like the one they are planning. This (almost) never happens. Your study will be different in some ways, and a study that is very similar to yours can be extraordinarily helpful in specifying your predictions. Be excited instead of terrified when you come across a study with a title similar to yours.
Try to locate all the published research that has been conducted on your topic. What does “on your topic” mean? How widely should you cast your net? There are no rules here; you will need to use your professional judgment. However, here is a general guide: If the study does not help you clarify your predictions, change your confidence in them, or strengthen your rationale, then it falls outside your net.
In addition to helping specify your predictions, prior research studies can be a goldmine for developing and strengthening your theoretical framework. How did researchers justify their predictions or explain why they found what they did? How can you use these ideas to support (or change) your own predictions?
By reading research on similar topics, you might also imagine ways of testing your predictions. Maybe you learn of ways you could design your study, measures you could use to collect data, or strategies you could use to analyze your data. As you find helpful ideas, you will want to keep track of where you found these ideas so you can cite the appropriate sources as you write drafts of your evolving research paper.
You will read a wide range of theories that provide insights into why things might work like they do. When the phenomena addressed by the theory are similar to those you will study, the associated theories can help you think through your own predictions and why you are making them. Returning to Martha’s situation, she could benefit from reading theories on adult learning, especially teacher learning, on transferring knowledge from one setting to another, on professional development for teachers, on the role of videos in learning, on the knowledge needed to teach conceptually, and so on.
As you review the literature and search for evidence and ideas that could strengthen your predictions and rationales, it is useful to keep your eyes on two components: the variables you will attend to and the mechanisms that might explain the relationships between the variables. Predictions could be considered statements about expected behaviors of the variables. The theoretical framework could be thought of as a description of all the variables that will be deliberately attended to plus the mechanisms conjectured to account for these relationships.
In Martha’s case, the most obvious variables are the responses teachers give to questions about their analysis of the videos and the features observed in their teaching practices. The mechanism of primary interest is the (mental and social) process that transforms the skills, knowledge, and attention involved in analyzing videos into particular kinds of teaching practices—or vice versa. The definition of conceptual teaching she adopted from previous studies gave her a clue about the mechanisms—about how and why learning to analyze videos might affect classroom teaching. The definition included attending to key learning moments in a lesson and tracking students’ thinking during these moments. Martha predicted that if teachers learned to attend to these aspects of teaching when viewing videos, they might attend to them when planning and implementing their own teaching.
As Martha reviewed the literature, she identified a number of variables that might affect the likelihood and extent of this translation. Here are some examples: how well teachers understand the mathematics in the videos and the mathematics they will teach; the nature of the videos themselves; the number of opportunities teachers have to analyze videos and the ways in which these opportunities are structured; teachers’ analysis of videos and their teaching practices before the learning opportunities begin; and how much time they have to apply what they learn to their own teaching.
Martha identified these additional variables because she learned they might have a direct influence on the mechanisms that could explain the relationship between analyzing videos and teaching. Some variables might support these mechanisms, and some might interfere. Martha’s task at this point in her work is to identify and describe all the variables that could play a meaningful role in the outcome of her study. This means to identify each variable for which it is possible to establish a clear and direct connection between the variable and the relationship she planned to investigate. Using the outcome of this task, Martha then needs to update her description of the mechanisms that could account for the relationships she expects to see and review her predictions and theoretical framework with these variables and mechanisms in mind.
Review the predictions that Martha made and identify the variables that play a role in these predictions. Even though you might not be immersed in this literature, think about the alignment between the variables included in the predictions and those that could impact the relationships in which Martha is interested. Are there other missing variables that should be included in her predictions?
The question of when your theoretical framework is finished could be answered in several ways. First, it is never really finished. As you continue to write your evolving research paper, you will continue strengthening your framework. You might even refine the framework as you write the final draft of your paper, after you have collected and analyzed your data. Furthermore, if you do follow-up studies, you will continue to build your framework.
A second answer is that you should invest the time and effort to build a theoretical framework that is as finished as possible at each point in the research process. As you write each draft of your evolving research paper, you should feel as if you have the strongest, most robust rationale you can have for your current predictions. In other words, you should feel that with each succeeding draft you have finished building your framework, even though you are quite sure you have not.
A third answer addresses a common, related question: “How do I know when I have included enough ideas and borrowed from enough sources? Would including another idea or citing another source be useful?” The answer is that you should include only those ideas that contribute to building a stronger framework. When you wonder whether you should include another idea or reference, ask yourself whether doing so would make your framework stronger in all the ways we described earlier.
In 2–3 pages (single spaced), write out the plan for your study. The plan should include your research questions, your predictions of the answers, your rationale for the predictions (i.e., your theoretical framework), and your imagined plan for testing the predictions. Be as explicit and precise as you can. Be sure you have identified the critical variables and described the mechanism(s) that could explain the phenomena, the relationships, and/or the changes you predict. Look back to see if the logic connecting the parts is obvious. Ask yourself whether the tests you plan are what anyone familiar with your framework would expect (i.e., there should be no surprises).
As we noted above, conversations with colleagues and other experts can help you refine your theoretical framework by clarifying your predictions and digging into the details of the rationales you develop to justify those predictions. This is as true for experienced researchers as it is for beginning researchers. The dialogue below is an example of how two colleagues, Adrian (A) and Corin (C), work together to gradually formulate a testable hypothesis. Some of their conversation will look familiar as they refine their prediction through multiple steps of discussion:
Narrowing the focus of their prediction.
Making their prediction more testable.
Being more specific about what they want to study.
Engaging their prediction in cycles of refinements.
Determining the appropriate level/grainsize of their prediction (zoom in, zoom out).
Adding more predictions.
Thinking about underlying mechanisms (i.e., what explains the relationships between their variables).
Putting their predictions on a continuum (going from black and white to grey).
In addition, they construct their theoretical framework to match their hypotheses through multiple steps:
Defining and rationalizing their variables.
Re-evaluating their initial rationales in response to changes in their initial predictions.
Asking themselves “why” questions about predictions and rationales.
Finding empirical evidence and theory that better supports their evolving predictions.
Keeping in mind what they are going to be measuring.
Making sure their rationales support each link in their chain of reasoning.
Identifying underlying mechanisms.
Making sure that statements are included in their rationale if and only if they directly support their predictions and are essential to the argument.
They begin with the following hypothesis:
Prediction: Students will exhibit more persistence in mathematical course taking in high school if they work in groups.
Brief Description of Rationale: When people work in groups, they feel more competent and learn better (Cohen & Lotan, 2014 ; Jansen, 2012). When people feel more competent, they persist in additional mathematical course taking (Bandura & Schunk, 1981 ; Dweck, 1986 ).
So, do we think this hypothesis is testable?
Well actually, who these students are is probably something we need to be more specific about.
Good point, and also, since Algebra 2 is the bridge to additional course taking (i.e., the first course students don’t have to take), perhaps we should target Algebra 2. How about if we change our prediction to the following: Algebra 2 students will exhibit more mathematical persistence in mathematical course taking in high school if they work in groups in Algebra 2.
Okay, but another problem is that it would take a long time to collect data that would inform a prediction about the courses students take, and over that amount of time I’m not sure we could even tell if groupwork was responsible. What if we limited our prediction to: Algebra 2 students will exhibit more mathematical persistence in Algebra 2 if they work in groups.
Good idea! But when we talk about persistence, do we mean students don’t quit, or that they don’t drop the course, or productively struggle during class, or turn in their homework, or is it something else we mean? To me, what would be testable about mathematical persistence would be persistence at the problem level, such as when students get stuck on a problem, but they don’t give up.
I agree. So, let’s predict the following: Algebra 2 students will exhibit more mathematical persistence in Algebra 2 when they get stuck on problems if they work in groups. That’s something I think we could test.
Yes, but I think we need to be even more specific about what we mean by mathematical persistence when students get stuck on problems.
Hmm, what if we focused specifically on mathematical persistence that involves staying engaged in trying to solve a problem for the duration of a problem-solving session or until the problem gets solved? But that also makes me wonder if we want to be focusing on persistence at the individual level or at the group level?
Umm, I think we should focus on persistence at the individual level, because that’s more consistent with our original interest in persistence in course taking, which is about individual students, not about groups.
Okay, that makes sense. So then how about this for a prediction: If Algebra 2 students work in groups, they will be more likely to stay engaged in trying to solve problems for the duration of a problem-solving session or until they solve the problem.
To this point in the dialogue, Adrian and Corin are developing a theoretical framework by sharpening what they mean by their prediction and making sure their prediction is testable. In the next part, they return to their original idea to make sure they have not strayed too far by making their prediction more precise. The dialogue illustrates how making predictions should support the goal of understanding the relationship between variables and the mechanisms for change.
Yes, I’m liking the way this prediction is evolving. However, I also feel like our prediction is now so focused that we’ve lost a bit of our initial idea of competence and learning, which is what we were initially interested in. Could we do something to bring those ideas back? Perhaps we could create more predictions to get at more of those ideas?
Great idea! Okay, so to help us see what we are missing now, let’s look back at the initial links in our chain of reasoning. We initially said that Working in Groups leads to Feeling Competent & Learning Better leads to Persistence in Math Course Taking. But our chain of reasoning has changed. I think it’s more like this: Working in Groups on Problems leads to Staying Engaged in Problem Solving leads to Greater Sense of Competence and Learning Better leads to More Persistence in Course Taking.
Okay, so if that’s the case, it looks like our new prediction just tests the first link in this chain, the link between Working in Groups on Problems and Staying Engaged in Problem Solving. It looks like there are three other potential predictions we could make; we could make a prediction about the relationship between Staying Engaged in Problem Solving and having a Greater Sense of Competence, between Staying Engaged in Problem Solving and Learning Better, and between having a Greater Sense of Competence/Learning Better and More Persistence in Course Taking.
Clearly that’s too many predictions for us to tackle in one study and actually I am aware of several studies that already address the third prediction. So, we can use those studies as part of our rationale and don’t need to study that link.
I agree. Let’s just add one prediction, one about the link between Staying Engaged and Sense of Competence. In our initial prediction, we just had a vague connection between Working in Groups and Sense of Competence. But in our new prediction, we were more specific that working in groups helps students stay engaged until the end of a problem-solving session. So, I guess we could say for a second prediction then that When Algebra 2 students stay engaged in problem solving until the end of a problem-solving session, they develop a greater sense of competence.
Okay so we will have two predictions to examine with our study: Prediction 1 is: If Algebra 2 students work in groups, they will be more likely to stay engaged in trying to solve problems for the duration of a problem-solving session or until they solve the problem. This prediction deals with the first link in our chain of reasoning. And then Prediction 2 is: If Algebra 2 students try to solve problems for the duration of a problem-solving session or until they solve the problem, they will be more likely to develop a sense of competence. Oh, as soon as I finished stating that prediction, the thought just came to me, “sense of competence about what?”
How about if we focused on sense of competence in being able to solve similar problems in the future? Actually, maybe that’s too limited. Maybe we should expand our prediction a bit more so we include a sense of competence that’s at least somewhat closer to more course taking? Something like sense of competence that involves feeling capable of understanding future Algebra 2 concepts. That’s at least bigger than sense of competence at solving similar problems. If students feel they’re capable of understanding future Algebra 2 concepts, then they will probably be more likely to persist in course taking too.
Okay, that makes sense. So, then our Prediction 2 could be: If Algebra 2 students try to solve problems for the duration of a problem-solving session or until they solve the problem, they will be more likely to feel they will be capable of understanding future Algebra 2 concepts.
Oh, I just had an additional idea! What if we changed the two predictions one more time to allow for more or less of the variables? For example, Prediction 1 could be: The more Algebra 2 students work in groups, the more likely they will stay engaged in trying to solve problems for the duration of a problem-solving session or until they solve the problem.
Yes, great. So, that would mean Prediction 2 could be: The more Algebra 2 students try to solve problems for the duration of a problem-solving session or until they solve the problem, the more likely they will feel they are capable of understanding future Algebra 2 concepts.
So, I think we’re happy with our predictions for now, but I think we need to work on our rationales for those predictions because they no longer apply very well.
Okay, to recap, our original chain of reasoning was Working in Groups leads to Feeling Competent & Learning Better leads to Persistence in Math Course Taking. Our initial rationales were the following: For the link between working in groups and feeling competent, we based that link on Cohen and Lotan’s ( 2014 ) book on Designing Groupwork, in which they explain why and how all students can feel competent through their engagement in groupwork. We also based this link on that 2012 Jansen study that found that groupwork helped students enact their competence in math. Then, for the link between competence and persistence, we based that link on the Bandura and Schunk ( 1981 ) study and on the work by Carol Dweck ( 1986 ) that show that children who feel more competent in arithmetic, tend to persist more.
Corin and Adrian have looked back at their initial research idea. In doing so, they illustrated how developing a theoretical framework involves developing and refining a chain of reasoning. They continue by working on developing rationales for their predictions.
Okay, so let’s think if any of our previous rationales still work. How about Elizabeth Cohen’s work? I still think her work applies because it shows that groupwork can affect engagement. But now that I think about it, another part of her work indicates that groupwork needs particular norms in order to be effective. So maybe we should tighten up our predictions to focus just on groupwork that has particular norms?
But, on the other hand, what about Jo Boaler’s ( 1998 ) “Open and Closed Mathematics” article? In that study, students at the Phoenix Park School did not have much structure, and in spite of that, groupwork worked quite well for those students, better than individual work did for students at the Amber Hill School who had highly structured instruction.
That’s a good point. So maybe we should leave our predictions about groupwork as is (i.e., not focus on particular norms). Also, the ideas in the Boaler article would be good to add to our theoretical framework because it deals with secondary students, which aligns better with the ages of the Algebra 2 students we are planning on studying.
Okay, so we’re adding the ideas in the Boaler article. I also think we need to find literature that specifies the kind of engagement we want to focus on. Looking at the engagement literature would sharpen our thinking about the engagement we are most interested in. We should consider Brigid Barron’s ( 2003 ) study, “When Smart Groups Fail.” In her study, students produced better products if they engaged with each other and with the content. But that makes me think that we are mostly just focused on the latter, namely on how individuals engage with the content.
I agree we’re focused on individuals’ engagement with the content. Come to think of it, the fact that we’re focused on how individuals engage with content rather than how groups engage further justifies why we’re not looking at groupwork norms. But let me ask a question we need to answer. Why are we focusing on how individuals engage with content? It’s not just a preference. It’s because we think individual engagement with content is related to feeling capable. So, our decision to focus on individual engagement aligns with our predictions. And even though we’re not including Barron’s work in our framework, considering her work helped sharpen our thinking about what we’re focusing on.
You know, we are kind of in a weird space because we’re focusing on individual engagement with content at the same time as we are predicting that groupwork leads to more engagement. In other words, we are and aren’t taking a social perspective. But what this reminds me of is how, from the perspective of the theory of constructivism, even though individuals have to make sense of things for themselves, social interactions are what drives sense making. In fact, here’s a quote from von Glasersfeld ( 1995 ): “Piaget has stressed many times that the most frequent cause of accommodation is the interaction” (p. 66). So, I think we can use constructivism as a theoretical justification for predicting that the social activity of groupwork is what is related to individual engagement with content.
Interesting! Yes, makes sense. When you were describing that, I had another insight from constructivism. You know how when someone experiences a perturbation, it also creates a need in them to resolve the perturbation, right? So maybe perturbations are the mechanism explaining why groupwork leads to more individual engagement with content. Groupwork potentially generates perturbations, meaning the person engages more to try to resolve those perturbations.
Okay, now that we have brought in the idea of perturbations as potentially being the mechanism that drives how working in groups leads to staying more engaged, perhaps we need to reconsider what we will be measuring in our study. Will it be perturbations, or will it be staying engaged that we should be measuring?
I think what we are saying is that the need to resolve perturbations is part of the underlying mechanism, but measuring the need to resolve perturbations would be difficult if not impossible. So, instead, I think we should focus on measuring the variable staying engaged , a variable we can measure. And then if we find that more working in groups leads to more staying engaged, that also gives us more evidence that our theoretical framework with perturbations as a mechanism is viable. In other words, mechanisms are part of our framework and by testing our prediction, we are testing our theoretical framework (i.e., our rationales) too.
This final part of the dialogue illustrates that the rationale for a study continues to develop as the predictions continue to be refined and testability continues to be considered. In other words, the development of the predictions and rationale (i.e., the theoretical framework) should be iterative and ongoing.
Through their discussion, Adrian and Corin have refined both their predictions and their rationales. In the process, the key ideas they have drawn on contributed to their rationales and thus to constructing their theoretical framework.
We have introduced a number of terms that play critical roles in the scientific inquiry process. Because they refer to related and sometimes overlapping ideas, keeping straight their meanings and uses can be challenging. It might be helpful to revisit each of them briefly to describe how they are similar to, and different from, each other.
To distinguish between rationales, theoretical frameworks, and literature reviews, it is useful to consider the roles they play as you plan and conduct a study compared to the roles they play when you write the report of your study.
The chronology of the thinking process often moves through many cycles of identifying a research problem or asking a question, and then reading the literature to learn more about the problem, and then refining and narrowing the scope of a question that would add to or extend what is known, and then predicting (guessing) an answer to the question and asking yourself why you predicted this answer and writing a first draft of your rationale, and then reading the literature to improve your rationale, and then realizing you can refine the question further along with specifying a clearer and more targeted prediction, and then reading the literature to further improve your rationale, and then realizing you can refine the question further along with a clearer and more targeted prediction, and so on.
The primary activity that generates more specific and clearer hypotheses is searching and reviewing literature . You can return to the literature as often as you need to build your rationales . As your rationales develop, they morph into your theoretical framework . The theoretical framework is a coherent argument that threads together the individual rationales and explains why your predictions are the best predictions the field can make at this time.
If you have one research question and one prediction you will have one rationale. In this case, your rationale is essentially the same as your theoretical framework. If you have more than one research question, you will have multiple predictions and multiple rationales. As you develop rationales for each prediction, you might find lots of overlap. Maybe the literatures you read to refine each prediction and develop each rationale overlap, and maybe the arguments you piece together include many of the same elements. Your theoretical framework emerges from weaving the rationales together into one coherent argument. Although this process is more complicated than the thinking process for one prediction, it is more common. If you find few connections among the rationales for each prediction, we recommend stepping back and asking whether you are conducting more than one study. It might make more sense to sort the questions into two or more studies because the rationales for the predicted answers are drawing from different literatures.
We recommend that you write drafts of the research report as you think through your study and make decisions about how to proceed. Although your thinking will be fluid and evolving, we recommend that you follow the conventions of academic writing as you write drafts. For example, we recommend that you structure the paper using the five typical major sections of a journal article: introduction, theoretical framework, methods, results, and discussion. Each of these sections will go through multiple drafts as you plan your study, collect the data, analyze the data, and interpret the results.
In the introduction, you will present the research problem you are studying. This includes describing the problem, explaining why it is significant, defining the special terms you use, and often presenting the research questions you will address along with the answers you predict. Sometimes the questions and predictions are part of the next section—the theoretical framework.
In the theoretical framework, you will present your best arguments for expecting the predicted answers to the research questions. You will not trace the many cycles in which you engaged to get to the best versions of your arguments but rather present the latest and best version. The report of a study does not describe the chronology of the back-and-forth messiness always involved in thinking through all aspects of the study. What you learned from reviewing the literature will be an integral part of your arguments. In other words, the review of research will be included in the presentation of your theoretical framework rather than in a separate section.
The literature you choose to include to present your theoretical framework is not all the literature you reviewed for conducting your study. Rather, the literature cited in your paper should be the literature that contributed to building your theoretical framework, and only that literature. In other words, the theoretical framework places the boundaries on what you should review in the paper.
Beginning researchers are often tempted to review much of what they read. Researchers put lots of time into reading, and leaving lots of it out when writing the paper can make all that reading feel like a waste of time. It is not a waste of time; it is always part of the research process. But, reviewing more than you need in the paper becomes a distraction and diverts the reader from the main points.
What should you do if the editor of the journal requires, or recommends, a section titled “review of research”? We recommend you create a somewhat more elaborated review for this section and then show exactly how you used the literature to build your rationale in the theoretical framework section.
Reviewers notice when the theoretical framework and the literature reviewed do not provide sufficient justification for the research questions (or the hypotheses). We found that about 13% of JRME reviews noted an especially important gap—the research questions in a paper were not sufficiently motivated. We expect the same would be true for other research journals. Reviewers also note when manuscripts either do not have an explicit theoretical framework or when they seem to be juggling more than one theoretical framework.
A significant benefit of building rich and precise theoretical frameworks is the guidance they provide for selecting and creating the methods you will use to test your hypotheses. The next phase in the process of scientific inquiry is crafting your methods: choosing your research design, selecting your sample, developing your measures, deciding on your data analysis strategies, and so on. In Chap. 4 , we discuss how you can do this in ways that keep your story coherent.
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Hiebert, J., Cai, J., Hwang, S., Morris, A.K., Hohensee, C. (2023). Building and Using Theoretical Frameworks. In: Doing Research: A New Researcher’s Guide. Research in Mathematics Education. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-19078-0_3
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What is a conceptual framework? And why is it important?
A conceptual framework illustrates the relationship between the variables of a research question. It’s an outline of what you’d expect to find in a research project.
Conceptual frameworks should be constructed before data collection and are vital because they map out the actions needed in the study. This should be the first step of an undergraduate or graduate research project.
In a conceptual framework, you’ll find a visual representation of the key concepts and relationships that are central to a research study or project . This can be in form of a diagram, flow chart, or any other visual representation. Overall, a conceptual framework serves as a guide for understanding the problem being studied and the methods being used to investigate it.
You should already have some idea of the broad area of your research project. Try to narrow down your research field to a manageable topic in terms of time and resources. From there, you need to formulate your research question. A research question answers the researcher’s query: “What do I want to know about my topic?” Research questions should be focused, concise, arguable and, ideally, should address a topic of importance within your field of research.
An example of a simple research question is: “What is the relationship between sunny days and ice cream sales?”
A literature review is an analysis of the scholarly publications on a chosen topic. To undertake a literature review, search for articles with the same theme as your research question. Choose updated and relevant articles to analyze and use peer-reviewed and well-respected journals whenever possible.
For the above example, the literature review would investigate publications that discuss how ice cream sales are affected by the weather. The literature review should reveal the variables involved and any current hypotheses about this relationship.
There are two key variables in every experiment: independent and dependent variables.
The independent variable (otherwise known as the predictor or explanatory variable) is the expected cause of the experiment: what the scientist changes or changes on its own. In our example, the independent variable would be “the number of sunny days.”
The dependent variable (otherwise known as the response or outcome variable) is the expected effect of the experiment: what is being studied or measured. In our example, the dependent variable would be “the quantity of ice cream sold.”
Next, there are control variables.
A control variable is a variable that may impact the dependent variable but whose effects are not going to be measured in the research project. In our example, a control variable could be “the socioeconomic status of participants.” Control variables should be kept constant to isolate the effects of the other variables in the experiment.
Finally, there are intervening and extraneous variables.
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Intervening variables link the independent and dependent variables and clarify their connection. In our example, an intervening variable could be “temperature.”
Extraneous variables are any variables that are not being investigated but could impact the outcomes of the study. Some instances of extraneous variables for our example would be “the average price of ice cream” or “the number of varieties of ice cream available.” If you control an extraneous variable, it becomes a control variable.
Having picked your research question, undertaken a literature review, and identified the relevant variables, it’s now time to construct your conceptual framework. Conceptual frameworks are clear and often visual representations of the relationships between variables.
We’ll start with the basics: the independent and dependent variables.
Our hypothesis is that the quantity of ice cream sold directly depends on the number of sunny days; hence, there is a cause-and-effect relationship between the independent variable (the number of sunny days) and the dependent and independent variable (the quantity of ice cream sold).
Next, introduce a control variable. Remember, this is anything that might directly affect the dependent variable but is not being measured in the experiment:
Finally, introduce the intervening and extraneous variables.
The intervening variable (temperature) clarifies the relationship between the independent variable (the number of sunny days) and the dependent variable (the quantity of ice cream sold). Extraneous variables, such as the average price of ice cream, are variables that are not controlled and can potentially impact the dependent variable.
In simple terms, the research paradigm is what informs your conceptual framework. In defining our research paradigm we ask the big questions—Is there an objective truth and how can we understand it? If we decide the answer is yes, we may be working with a positivist research paradigm and will choose to build a conceptual framework that displays the relationship between fixed variables. If not, we may be working with a constructivist research paradigm, and thus our conceptual framework will be more of a loose amalgamation of ideas, theories, and themes (a qualitative study). If this is confusing–don’t worry! We have an excellent blog post explaining research paradigms in more detail.
This will depend on your discipline, research type, and school’s guidelines, but most papers will include a section presenting the conceptual framework in the introduction, literature review, or opening chapter. It’s best to present your conceptual framework after presenting your research question, but before outlining your methodology.
Yes. Despite being less clear-cut than a quantitative study, all studies should present some form of a conceptual framework. Let’s say you were doing a study on care home practices and happiness, and you came across a “happiness model” constructed by a relevant theorist in your literature review. Your conceptual framework could be an outline or a visual depiction of how you will use this model to collect and interpret qualitative data for your own study (such as interview responses). Check out this useful resource showing other examples of conceptual frameworks for qualitative studies .
Whether you’re a seasoned academic or not, you will want your research paper to be error-free and fluently written. That’s where proofreading comes in. Our editors are on hand 24 hours a day to ensure your writing is concise, clear, and precise. Submit a free sample of your writing today to try our services.
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Often the most difficult part of a research study is preparing the proposal based around a theoretical or philosophical framework. Graduate students ‘…express confusion, a lack of knowledge, and frustration with the challenge of choosing a theoretical framework and understanding how to apply it’. 1 However, the importance in understanding and applying a theoretical framework in research cannot be overestimated.
The choice of a theoretical framework for a research study is often a reflection of the researcher’s ontological (nature of being) and epistemological (theory of knowledge) perspective. We will not delve into these concepts, or personal philosophy in this article. Rather we will focus on how a theoretical framework can be integrated into research.
The theoretical framework is a blueprint for your research project 1 and serves several purposes. It informs the problem you have identified, the purpose and significance of your research demonstrating how your research fits with what is already known (relationship to existing theory and research). This provides a basis for your research questions, the literature review and the methodology and analysis that you choose. 1 Evidence of your chosen theoretical framework should be visible in every aspect of your research and should demonstrate the contribution of this research to knowledge. 2
A theory is an explanation of a concept or an abstract idea of a phenomenon. An example of a theory is Bandura’s middle range theory of self-efficacy, 3 or the level of confidence one has in achieving a goal. Self-efficacy determines the coping behaviours that a person will exhibit when facing obstacles. Those who have high self-efficacy are likely to apply adequate effort leading to successful outcomes, while those with low self-efficacy are more likely to give up earlier and ultimately fail. Any research that is exploring concepts related to self-efficacy or the ability to manage difficult life situations might apply Bandura’s theoretical framework to their study.
Example 1: the big five theoretical framework.
The first example includes research which integrates the ‘Big Five’, a theoretical framework that includes concepts related to teamwork. These include team leadership, mutual performance monitoring, backup behaviour, adaptability and team orientation. 4 In order to conduct research incorporating a theoretical framework, the concepts need to be defined according to a frame of reference. This provides a means to understand the theoretical framework as it relates to a specific context and provides a mechanism for measurement of the concepts.
In this example, the concepts of the Big Five were given a conceptual definition, that provided a broad meaning and then an operational definition, which was more concrete. 4 From here, a survey was developed that reflected the operational definitions related to teamwork in nursing: the Nursing Teamwork Survey (NTS). 5 In this case, the concepts used in the theoretical framework, the Big Five, were the used to develop a survey specific to teamwork in nursing.
The NTS was used in research of nurses at one hospital in northeastern Ontario. Survey questions were grouped into subscales for analysis, that reflected the concepts of the Big Five. 6 For example, one finding of this study was that the nurses from the surgical unit rated the items in the subscale of ’team leadership' (one of the concepts in the Big Five) significantly lower than in the other units. The researchers looked back to the definition of this concept in the Big Five in their interpretation of the findings. Since the definition included a person(s) who has the leadership skills to facilitate teamwork among the nurses on the unit, the conclusion in this study was that the surgical unit lacked a mentor, or facilitator for teamwork. In this way, the theory of teamwork was presented through a set of concepts in a theoretical framework. The Theoretical Framework (TF)was the foundation for development of a survey related to a specific context, used to measure each of the concepts within the TF. Then, the analysis and results circled back to the concepts within the TF and provided a guide for the discussion and conclusions arising from the research.
In another study which explored adherence to intravenous chemotherapy in African-American and Caucasian Women with early stage breast cancer, an adapted version of the Health Decisions Model (HDM) was used as the theoretical basis for the study. 7 The HDM, a revised version of the Health Belief Model, incorporates some aspects of the Health Belief Model and factors relating to patient preferences. 8 The HDM consists of six interrelated constituents that might predict how well a person adheres to a health decision. These include sociodemographic, social interaction, experience, knowledge, general and specific health beliefs and patient preferences, and are clearly defined. The HDM model was used to explore factors which might influence adherence to chemotherapy in women with breast cancer. Sociodemographic, social interaction, knowledge, personal experience and specific health beliefs were used as predictors of adherence to chemotherapy.
The findings were reported using the theoretical framework to discuss results. The study found that delay to treatment, health insurance, depression and symptom severity were predictors to starting chemotherapy which could potentially be adapted with clinical interventions. The findings from the study contribute to the existing body of literature related to cancer nursing.
In this final example, research was conducted to determine the nursing processes that were associated with unexpected intensive care unit admissions. 9 The framework was the Nursing Role Effectiveness Model. In this theoretical framework, the concepts within Donabedian’s Quality Framework of Structure, Process and Outcome were each defined according to nursing practice. 10 11 Processes defined in the Nursing Role Effectiveness Model were used to identify the nursing process variables that were measured in the study.
A theoretical framework should be logically presented and represent the concepts, variables and relationships related to your research study, in order to clearly identify what will be examined, described or measured. It involves reading the literature and identifying a research question(s) while clearly defining and identifying the existing relationship between concepts and theories (related to your research questions[s] in the literature). You must then identify what you will examine or explore in relation to the concepts of the theoretical framework. Once you present your findings using the theoretical framework you will be able to articulate how your study relates to and may potentially advance your chosen theory and add to knowledge.
Funding The authors have not declared a specific grant for this research from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.
Competing interests None declared.
Provenance and peer review Not commissioned; internally peer reviewed.
Patient and public involvement Not required.
Strategies for developing the theoretical framework, structure and writing style, writing tip, another writing tip, yet another writing tip, still yet another writing tip.
Theories are formulated to explain, predict, and understand phenomena and, in many cases, to challenge and extend existing knowledge within the limits of critical bounding assumptions. The theoretical framework is the structure that can hold or support a theory of a research study. The theoretical framework introduces and describes the theory that explains why the research problem under study exists.
Abend, Gabriel. "The Meaning of Theory." Sociological Theory 26 (June 2008): 173–199; Swanson, Richard A. Theory Building in Applied Disciplines . San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler Publishers 2013.
A theoretical framework consists of concepts and, together with their definitions and reference to relevant scholarly literature, existing theory that is used for your particular study. The theoretical framework must demonstrate an understanding of theories and concepts that are relevant to the topic of your research paper and that relate to the broader areas of knowledge being considered.
The theoretical framework is most often not something readily found within the literature . You must review course readings and pertinent research studies for theories and analytic models that are relevant to the research problem you are investigating. The selection of a theory should depend on its appropriateness, ease of application, and explanatory power.
The theoretical framework strengthens the study in the following ways :
By virtue of its applicative nature, good theory in the social sciences is of value precisely because it fulfills one primary purpose: to explain the meaning, nature, and challenges associated with a phenomenon, often experienced but unexplained in the world in which we live, so that we may use that knowledge and understanding to act in more informed and effective ways.
The Conceptual Framework . College of Education. Alabama State University; Corvellec, Hervé, ed. What is Theory?: Answers from the Social and Cultural Sciences . Stockholm: Copenhagen Business School Press, 2013; Asher, Herbert B. Theory-Building and Data Analysis in the Social Sciences . Knoxville, TN: University of Tennessee Press, 1984; Drafting an Argument . Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Ravitch, Sharon M. and Matthew Riggan. Reason and Rigor: How Conceptual Frameworks Guide Research . Second edition. Los Angeles, CA: SAGE, 2017; Trochim, William M.K. Philosophy of Research . Research Methods Knowledge Base. 2006; Jarvis, Peter. The Practitioner-Researcher. Developing Theory from Practice . San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1999.
I. Developing the Framework
Here are some strategies to develop of an effective theoretical framework:
A theoretical framework is used to limit the scope of the relevant data by focusing on specific variables and defining the specific viewpoint [framework] that the researcher will take in analyzing and interpreting the data to be gathered. It also facilitates the understanding of concepts and variables according to given definitions and builds new knowledge by validating or challenging theoretical assumptions.
II. Purpose
Think of theories as the conceptual basis for understanding, analyzing, and designing ways to investigate relationships within social systems. To that end, the following roles served by a theory can help guide the development of your framework.
Adapted from: Torraco, R. J. “Theory-Building Research Methods.” In Swanson R. A. and E. F. Holton III , editors. Human Resource Development Handbook: Linking Research and Practice . (San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler, 1997): pp. 114-137; Jacard, James and Jacob Jacoby. Theory Construction and Model-Building Skills: A Practical Guide for Social Scientists . New York: Guilford, 2010; Ravitch, Sharon M. and Matthew Riggan. Reason and Rigor: How Conceptual Frameworks Guide Research . Second edition. Los Angeles, CA: SAGE, 2017; Sutton, Robert I. and Barry M. Staw. “What Theory is Not.” Administrative Science Quarterly 40 (September 1995): 371-384.
The theoretical framework may be rooted in a specific theory , in which case, your work is expected to test the validity of that existing theory in relation to specific events, issues, or phenomena. Many social science research papers fit into this rubric. For example, Peripheral Realism Theory, which categorizes perceived differences among nation-states as those that give orders, those that obey, and those that rebel, could be used as a means for understanding conflicted relationships among countries in Africa. A test of this theory could be the following: Does Peripheral Realism Theory help explain intra-state actions, such as, the disputed split between southern and northern Sudan that led to the creation of two nations?
However, you may not always be asked by your professor to test a specific theory in your paper, but to develop your own framework from which your analysis of the research problem is derived . Based upon the above example, it is perhaps easiest to understand the nature and function of a theoretical framework if it is viewed as an answer to two basic questions:
The answers to these questions come from a thorough review of the literature and your course readings [summarized and analyzed in the next section of your paper] and the gaps in the research that emerge from the review process. With this in mind, a complete theoretical framework will likely not emerge until after you have completed a thorough review of the literature .
Just as a research problem in your paper requires contextualization and background information, a theory requires a framework for understanding its application to the topic being investigated. When writing and revising this part of your research paper, keep in mind the following:
The Conceptual Framework . College of Education. Alabama State University; Conceptual Framework: What Do You Think is Going On? College of Engineering. University of Michigan; Drafting an Argument . Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Lynham, Susan A. “The General Method of Theory-Building Research in Applied Disciplines.” Advances in Developing Human Resources 4 (August 2002): 221-241; Tavallaei, Mehdi and Mansor Abu Talib. "A General Perspective on the Role of Theory in Qualitative Research." Journal of International Social Research 3 (Spring 2010); Ravitch, Sharon M. and Matthew Riggan. Reason and Rigor: How Conceptual Frameworks Guide Research . Second edition. Los Angeles, CA: SAGE, 2017; Reyes, Victoria. Demystifying the Journal Article . Inside Higher Education; Trochim, William M.K. Philosophy of Research . Research Methods Knowledge Base. 2006; Weick, Karl E. “The Work of Theorizing.” In Theorizing in Social Science: The Context of Discovery . Richard Swedberg, editor. (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2014), pp. 177-194.
Borrowing Theoretical Constructs from Elsewhere
An increasingly important trend in the social and behavioral sciences is to think about and attempt to understand research problems from an interdisciplinary perspective. One way to do this is to not rely exclusively on the theories developed within your particular discipline, but to think about how an issue might be informed by theories developed in other disciplines. For example, if you are a political science student studying the rhetorical strategies used by female incumbents in state legislature campaigns, theories about the use of language could be derived, not only from political science, but linguistics, communication studies, philosophy, psychology, and, in this particular case, feminist studies. Building theoretical frameworks based on the postulates and hypotheses developed in other disciplinary contexts can be both enlightening and an effective way to be more engaged in the research topic.
CohenMiller, A. S. and P. Elizabeth Pate. "A Model for Developing Interdisciplinary Research Theoretical Frameworks." The Qualitative Researcher 24 (2019): 1211-1226; Frodeman, Robert. The Oxford Handbook of Interdisciplinarity . New York: Oxford University Press, 2010.
Don't Undertheorize!
Do not leave the theory hanging out there in the introduction never to be mentioned again. Undertheorizing weakens your paper. The theoretical framework you describe should guide your study throughout the paper. Be sure to always connect theory to the review of pertinent literature and to explain in the discussion part of your paper how the theoretical framework you chose supports analysis of the research problem or, if appropriate, how the theoretical framework was found to be inadequate in explaining the phenomenon you were investigating. In that case, don't be afraid to propose your own theory based on your findings.
What's a Theory? What's a Hypothesis?
The terms theory and hypothesis are often used interchangeably in newspapers and popular magazines and in non-academic settings. However, the difference between theory and hypothesis in scholarly research is important, particularly when using an experimental design. A theory is a well-established principle that has been developed to explain some aspect of the natural world. Theories arise from repeated observation and testing and incorporates facts, laws, predictions, and tested assumptions that are widely accepted [e.g., rational choice theory; grounded theory; critical race theory].
A hypothesis is a specific, testable prediction about what you expect to happen in your study. For example, an experiment designed to look at the relationship between study habits and test anxiety might have a hypothesis that states, "We predict that students with better study habits will suffer less test anxiety." Unless your study is exploratory in nature, your hypothesis should always explain what you expect to happen during the course of your research.
The key distinctions are:
Cherry, Kendra. Introduction to Research Methods: Theory and Hypothesis . About.com Psychology; Gezae, Michael et al. Welcome Presentation on Hypothesis . Slideshare presentation.
Be Prepared to Challenge the Validity of an Existing Theory
Theories are meant to be tested and their underlying assumptions challenged; they are not rigid or intransigent, but are meant to set forth general principles for explaining phenomena or predicting outcomes. Given this, testing theoretical assumptions is an important way that knowledge in any discipline develops and grows. If you're asked to apply an existing theory to a research problem, the analysis may include the expectation by your professor that you should offer modifications to the theory based on your research findings. Indications that theoretical assumptions may need to be modified can include the following:
Philipsen, Kristian. "Theory Building: Using Abductive Search Strategies." In Collaborative Research Design: Working with Business for Meaningful Findings . Per Vagn Freytag and Louise Young, editors. (Singapore: Springer Nature, 2018), pp. 45-71; Shepherd, Dean A. and Roy Suddaby. "Theory Building: A Review and Integration." Journal of Management 43 (2017): 59-86.
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A patient-centered conceptual model of aya cancer survivorship care informed by a qualitative interview study.
1. introduction, 2.1. recruitment, 2.2. interview approach, 2.3. analysis, 3.1. overall themes, 3.2. care coordination and healthcare system navigation support.
“So there really wasn’t much time. Or was there? I didn’t know to ask that question. Okay, I know this is growing—is there enough time for me to get a consultation? I don’t know if maybe I could have waited a few days. I just don’t know, because I didn’t know that question to ask... But I just went ahead and signed away because I felt like I was—I hate to say the word bullied, but I felt like I was in a corner. I was like oh my god—this cancer’s bigger than me, just get it out, kill it! Do what you need to do.”— Participant 1, female, breast cancer, 30–39 years old at diagnosis .
“I, I mostly blamed myself for my inexperience in hospitals, I guess. But yeah, I felt like people weren’t necessarily completely clear, well, telling me exactly what I had to do. What I should do. Like when I should ask for help or when I didn’t need to, that sort of thing.”— Participant 2, female, renal cell carcinoma, 30–39 years old at diagnosis .
“I felt like I had to be the care coordinator. I had to make sure everybody knew what the other was doing. Proactively ask for appointments—like okay, I’m going to have to get radiation next. And they’re like oh, you can wait for that until the week before, and I was like, but what if I don’t like [the provider]? You’re going to put me in a box. So I had to just be proactive to get the kind of care that I wanted to get. And I felt like my care coordinator, which is exhausting.”— Participant 4, female, breast cancer, 30–39 years old at diagnosis .
“I was first getting treatment somewhere and I didn’t feel completely taken care of there. As a nurse practitioner, I felt like I was asking—I was supposed to be a patient then, I wasn’t supposed to be a health care provider. So I felt like I was directing my care and I was reminding them of things. It didn’t feel like the right fit for me with my oncologist and the care team, so I ended up after getting a second opinion switching to another hospital.”— Participant 3, female, Hodgkin’s lymphoma, 20–29 years old at diagnosis .
“Gosh, that’s really why I became an advocate—I just couldn’t believe the lack of treating me as a holistic person. I understand that I guess to be an oncologist you’re going to meet patients who ultimately die from it, and I get that they’re trying to make sure that you don’t die, and that is of course great, you kind of need that. But what about a nurse navigator or even like the nurse? There was no follow up... there needs to be a middle person. Whether it be that nurse or that social worker, and it should be mandatory that every AYA... have an initial conversation [with them] and then determine if you want to work with them...The follow ups just go through the cracks.”— Participant 1, female, breast cancer, 30–39 years old at diagnosis .
“I felt like my oncologist was very good at giving me medications to deal with nausea and other side effects when I needed them...But I had to research online what are things that I could use and then go and ask for it, as opposed to someone presenting me with “these are all the resources” or “these are things you should consider, let us know what you need”. I felt like the latter would have been much more helpful. I went to [other specialty cancer centers, and] both of those hospitals did provide that. Like “here’s your coordinator, here’s a whole pamphlet, here’s all the resources we have. Here’s how you use each one”. So I thought that was really cool.”— Participant 4, female, breast cancer, 30–39 years old at diagnosis .
“Definitely anxiety, depression for sure. I think those would be the biggest two that I’ve had to deal with. It’s an everyday struggle … Anxious about my cancer getting worse or also having cancer in my family or friends, since I already know what it feels like, having cancer. I wouldn’t want any of my loved ones to go through the same thing.”— Participant 6, female, breast cancer, 30–39 years old at diagnosis .
“Cancer is trauma, and even though a lot may not equate it with that term, because they just don’t know, a lot of us have PTSD. And that’s not talked about enough… every experience in the AYA community matters. So that might be why someone would not [talk to a researcher about their cancer experience], because they might feel like you could talk to someone better. It’s really about insecurity, but also too how they’ve been treated throughout their treatment. It can be hard to discuss and be traumatic. I can now verbally talk about it without bursting into tears, but not everyone can.”— Participant 1, female, breast cancer, 30–39 years old at diagnosis .
“Obviously having cancer kind of like fucks you up mentally. But I’ve been going to therapy, I actually take an antianxiety med now.”— Participant 8, female, Hodgkin’s lymphoma, 15–19 years old at diagnosis .
“Like I thought, I thought I was alone for like five years … Post treatment I actually had a really bad depressive episode, because I was just in such despair because I thought I was alone and no one else was like me. And I did hours of searching and finally found a couple of organizations that led me to other things. But I would have liked to have those resources [earlier], I wouldn’t have felt so alone.”— Participant 8, female, Hodgkin’s lymphoma, 15–19 years old at diagnosis .
“I actually learned about the support groups from Instagram … just as a young Black woman, [it was important] to see other women of color that were young and that looked like me, because I was not seeing that at my cancer center. So that was a huge support for me. Also, just by sharing my story, it allowed me to pay it forward to other young adults and also inspired me to get involved in advocacy work.”— Participant 9, female, breast cancer, 30–39 years old at diagnosis .
“It’s bad enough I’m an AYA, it’s bad enough I’m Black, it’s bad enough I’m a woman, it’s bad enough that I am an only child. I feel like all of these things were hitting me—and I have cancer, and now I literally have no one? It’s been hard.”— Participant 1, female, breast cancer, 30–39 years old at diagnosis .
“So, I think at the time the quintessential experience of being the youngest person at the cancer center in the waiting room, you know, not seeing anybody else my age unless they were in a caregiver capacity... And just feeling like I was the only person my age that had cancer and was getting treatment. And so the experience was very different when you are under 40. I didn’t know other people that had gone through that at the time.”— Participant 10, male, testicular cancer, 30–39 years old at diagnosis .
“As I was nearing the end of chemotherapy, I was feeling like I couldn’t really talk to my friends the same, and I didn’t really have people to relate to, and I felt like an astronaut. My brain was foggy, I really wanted to talk to someone about [my side effects and stuff] without worrying people. I remember Stupid Cancer was the big [AYA organization] at the time, and I saw that they had in-person Meetups. I decided to go … and then I instantly was like oh, maybe this [is] a window into a community I didn’t even know existed. I didn’t picture people in their 20s and 30s with cancer hanging out before this. That was the beginning of making cancer friends, [we have fun but] also if someone does need to vent about their situation, treatment, insurance, or relationships going away because of cancer, you’re the perfect [person] to talk to about it.”— Participant 11, male, testicular cancer, 30–39 years old at diagnosis .
“I went through a lot of side effects. I literally had the motherlode of side effects and what was very hurtful was when my oncologist would be like yeah, you know, a lot of patients get that. Well, it’s my first time seeing my tongue turn black, so you might want to have some sort of—I don’t know, like compassion for how freaked out I would be. Even my throat would swell and I had difficulty swallowing. ‘Oh, I’ve seen it before, I’ve seen worse.’ Well, I’ve never seen worse.”— Participant 1, female, breast cancer, 30–39 years old at diagnosis .
“I wish that that there was an AYA program at the hospital to tell me about these resources. To tell me like, hey, there’s a Gilda’s Club, it’s 10 to 15 min from here. There’s a meeting once a month. You can go and meet people your own age. It’s safe. People are really cool. Check it out. And now you can join these virtually. Just having somebody to say to me that is totally normal to feel that way. There are other people your age that get treatment here and you can meet them. That would have been really awesome.”— Participant 10, male, testicular cancer, 30–39 years old at diagnosis .
“I think just introducing for patients, that adolescent young adult oncology exists, and there is support out there for AYA’s. I didn’t really dive into the AYA support community until after treatment and got connected to a lot of resources and a lot of friends that way. But I think if I had known that resources like that existed while I was going through treatment, it would have been helpful just to know that I wasn’t alone and all these amazing organizations exist.”— Participant 12, female, osteosarcoma, 15–19 years old at diagnosis .
“When I got diagnosed in the hospital … they had brought in a blood specialist and he described leukemia to me … After he left one of the interns immediately asked me, like so do you have any kids? And I was like no. And he was like, have you thought about freezing your eggs? And I’m like, dude, this dude just told me about cancer, like I haven’t, I can’t talk about kids right now like. You know?”— Participant 13, female, leukemia, 20–29 years old at diagnosis .
“The timing was rushed because it was overwhelming. I feel like if you sit down with anybody, man, woman, whatever, and tell them you might not be able to have kids, that’s pretty heavy and something you want to sit with. And … it’s not like it was free to go get the sperm banking done and have it stored. But I was like well, if I don’t do this, that might be it, I might never have kids. Even if I don’t want them at the moment, taking the option off just seemed scary. So yeah, I would have liked to have had more time.”— Participant 11, male, testicular cancer, 30–39 years old at diagnosis .
“Everything for me happened within like three days, so there was no, no ability to like, I don’t even know what it’s called. But to … freeze my eggs, I didn’t have that option because of the type of cancer I had everything had to be done so quickly. The only thing I was told in regards to fertility is you may not be able to have kids. There’s a high likelihood with the chemotherapy you are receiving that you may not be able to have children after this. There was no offering of like any type of resources. I only found that out afterwards, [about] all like the different type of programs for patients.”— Participant 15, female, leukemia, 20–29 years old at diagnosis .
“We talked about [fertility preservation] in [my support] group before and I guess, well, I mean for guys it’s easy, so they’re super on top of it as far as when we spoke about it. But a lot of [women] who were in similar positions to me where it was all just really sad. From my experience [the doctors] were like, okay, you’re here now, here’s your doctor, here’s your treatment. Oh, by the way there’s this [fertility preservation option], we kind of want to get started right now, so could you just not [have kids] … It wasn’t a huge deal, but I was a little sad.”— Participant 14, female, leukemia, 20–29 years old at diagnosis .
“There should have been a follow up call [after my diagnosis]. Because that was a really intense moment. My first time as the patient … Why wasn’t there a follow up? Like hey, I know you just heard a lot of information, let’s talk about this. I feel like I should have at least been required to get a consultation with an infertility specialist, even though it wouldn’t have been covered under my insurance. I feel that conversation should at least have been had so they could make sure I was really making the best decision for myself at that time. Sorry, I get really passionate and very angered about it.”— Participant 1, female, breast cancer, 30–39 years old at diagnosis .
“I lost my fertility. No one prepared me for that. I didn’t receive initial counseling going into that surgery or coming out of it. I didn’t expect to experience that kind of grief, because I was single all this time, and childless, and now I am chronically single and barren forever. None of my doctors cared to see how that would affect me.”— Participant 1, female, breast cancer, 30–39 years old at diagnosis .
“I don’t really have trouble communicating with [doctors]. I’m a lawyer and I did a lot of research, so I generally got the comments that ‘oh, you’re so knowledgeable, you’re an easy patient.’ [But] I don’t think they necessarily answered all my questions, or gave me all the resources that were available, or were upfront about side effects, which I found frustrating…[the doctors failed] to mention fertility resources [so] I found my own stuff … I certainly wouldn’t say I got most of my information from my oncologist, but I found it in other places.”— Participant 4, female, breast cancer, 30–39 years old at diagnosis .
“My oncologist is very respectful of my wishes in terms of wanting to have another baby … but then [she] also wasn’t afraid to tell me, you know, we can only do one round of harvesting your eggs, because it’s not safe to do more. She did a really good job acknowledging my dream and weighing that accordingly, [so] I’m not risking life … but I’m still able to try to, you know, preserve my fertility before having this definitive surgery.”— Participant 5, female, ovarian cancer, 30–39 years old at diagnosis .
“Before I started chemo, my social worker came to talk to me in the hospital room and she just wanted me to know like hey, your doctors want you to do chemo, but you don’t have to do it right now, you can work on the fertility thing, if it’s important to you. So she made me feel comfortable that it was okay to delay the treatment.”— Participant 7, female, leukemia, 20–29 years old at diagnosis .
“We needed help, we had help from family and friends, but again, the financial burden … is just a nightmare. You got the financial burden, you got the paperwork. You’re supposed to be focusing on your health.”— Participant 5, female, ovarian cancer, 30–39 years old at diagnosis .
“I worked in fine dining and didn’t have any insurance … And then the diagnosis alone racked up I think tens of thousands of [dollars in] debt and I was just through biopsies and scans and you know. I was going to, which is laughable, but it was called free clinic. It took a long time before I was diagnosed; go get bloodwork, come back in two weeks, schedule another appointment for two weeks later. And debt was mounting.”— Participant 16, male, Hodgkin’s lymphoma, 20–29 years old at diagnosis .
“I probably know more about the American health services than I ever wanted to know … it’s just not the way I would have liked to have learned it.”— Participant 8, female, Hodgkin’s lymphoma, 15–19 years old at diagnosis .
“With my age I am able to be on my dad’s insurance and it is a really good insurance plan. So it hasn’t been like insanely expensive or anything … But as I approach my 26th birthday, the cutoff [of staying on my parents’ insurance], I have lots of concerns with finding good health care on my own.”— Participant 14, female, leukemia, 20–29 years old at diagnosis .
“When I was first diagnosed I was studying for a board license for civil engineering. I was still thinking I’m going to be in chemo for eight hours, I’ll have a lot of time to study at the hospital. It wasn’t like that at all. That’s when I was in denial, and I think after that, that’s when depression hit me. I was like you know what? It’s over, I’m just going to keep my job now. There’s no way I can study for the exam … Sometimes in my back of my mind I’m still thinking I want to be a licensed engineer and all I have to do is pass that exam. I start dreaming that when I pass the exam, I’m going to get my promotion and travel more, which I used to do before diagnosis … I guess career-wise I still think about getting my license, even if I don’t keep working in the engineering field, I want to feel accomplished. I want to be able to say even through or despite cancer, I was still able to accomplish that.”— Participant 6, female, breast cancer, 30–39 years old at diagnosis .
“So because I got sick, at least with my internship hours, I could have been done last December. But I was going through treatment. And my friend and I were collecting hours and going to school at the same time. She already finished herself, got certified, she’s my boss right now. She’s my supervisor. We were like at the same level, she’s already above me. So and she doesn’t treat me any lower, but I’m still a little upset sometimes because I could have been there by now if I hadn’t gotten sick.”— Participant 13, female, leukemia, 20–29 years old at diagnosis .
“I’ve been a dog groomer on and off for about 10 years. And I when I was finally able to get back into work [right after my surgery], I felt like they didn’t understand what I was going through. Like I was very anxious, and there’s a lot of sounds in a grooming salon. And it was really putting me on edge. And I started to wear earplugs to deal with that. And then I started getting like looks from my coworkers and like I just started to feel less and less welcome there. And I just gave up on it and I ended up quitting that job. I just didn’t feel very good there anymore.”— Participant 2, female, renal cell carcinoma, 30–39 years old at diagnosis .
“I did officially go back up to my regular hours, but there are some days that I take time off for appointments. I try to schedule for example my scans in one day, for example, so I only have to take one day off whenever I can…It’s not just cancer that we deal with, we still have to deal with what other people go through as well, for example taking time out for dental and eye doctor appointments. I still have to take time off for that.”— Participant 6, female, breast cancer, 30–39 years old at diagnosis .
“I had never been to the hospital before. And so I had to go through getting my diagnosis. Going through all these different procedures. And every one alone. They transferred me because they didn’t have the resources where I live to treat me. They transferred me to Houston, so my life got uprooted. My job put on hold. I had to move about five hours away so I could get treatment.”— Participant 13, female, leukemia, 20–29 years old at diagnosis .
“The important elements for young adult cancer care compared to the typical cancer patient that you think of, like 50, 60, 70, they’re worried more about the here and now, and they don’t necessarily have to worry about side effects 20, 30 years down the road, because life expectancy, they won’t be there. I was diagnosed at 25. God willing, I’ll be alive for 50 more years beyond that. I don’t want to be dealing with side effects for years on end, so if there’s an option that’s a little bit more conservative treatment, which will possibly result in less side effects but maybe instead of saying it’s 100% certain, it’s 80% certain. That’s a 20% difference, so I think addressing that in terms that are easily understood by young adults, and also not in a talk down to manner, is super important.”— Participant 17, male, testicular cancer, 20–29 years old at diagnosis .
“Oh, and then the thing I always forget are the other secondary effects of treatment. I had to have both shoulders and both hips replaced, and I had no idea that was going to be in my future whatsoever, at the time of treatment.”— Participant 18, female, leukemia, 20–29 years old at diagnosis .
“I have osteoporosis and I’m not even 25 yet, so that’s kind of concerning for the future.”— Participant 14, female, leukemia, 20–29 years old at diagnosis .
“The one thing I do deal with is, because of all the surgery I’ve had, I have chronic nerve pain, nerve damage, so that’s not fun to deal with. I wish I would have known that it was a possibility, because I was not told that it was a possibility that this could happen.”— Participant 19, female, sarcoma, 15–19 years old at diagnosis .
“I’ve got major issues with the majority of my organs. I have liver damage. I have heart failure. I was in a wheelchair for a while. I was on bedrest for a very long time right after everything. I am disabled. I am on disability. And I do not have the energy I once did. Napping and every couple days just being totally exhausted is kind of part of my life.”— Participant 20, female, leukemia, 30–39 years old at diagnosis .
“I have permanent damage—I don’t feel my feet, my toes from the upper balls to my toes. Sometimes the numbness goes up my legs… and I’ve fallen, actually almost fractured my ankle in January because I didn’t feel my foot. It was so sudden and severe, and … no one seemed to take it as seriously as I did, which is frustrating.”— Participant 1, female, breast cancer, 30–39 years old at diagnosis .
“[My center had] an AYA program. Granted, they have so much volume because they have a special unit, so I think volume begets resources. But they have providers who are knowledgeable and not just oncologists, but lots of different providers who are knowledgeable about issues that AYA’s face, especially fertility. Sometimes we respond differently to drugs. If every center could have somebody who has a special research focus, to keep up to date on AYA’s. Or a pamphlet, a website, that even would have been helpful. I feel like there’s many ways to skin the cat, but it’s just providing age-appropriate information.”— Participant 4, female, breast cancer, 30–39 years old at diagnosis .
“But I definitely wanted more [young adult] support specifically. And not just in general cancer support, I went through this huge ordeal; it’s completely life changing. And I just, to me the more support I’m getting I feel more in control and I have more power.”— Participant 5, female, ovarian cancer, 30–39 years old at diagnosis .
4.1. care coordination and healthcare system navigation, 4.2. mental health support, 4.3. aya peer support, 4.4. empathic communication about fertility preservation, 4.5. financial burden, 4.6. quality of life, 4.7. education and support regarding side effects and late effects, 4.8. attention to the unique needs of young adults, 4.9. limitations, 4.10. implications for cancer survivors, 5. conclusions, supplementary materials, author contributions, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, acknowledgments, conflicts of interest.
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Number (%) | |
---|---|
Female | 21 (84) |
Male | 4 (16) |
White | 19 (76) |
Black | 2 (8) |
Middle Eastern/North African | 1 (4) |
Other | 3 (12) |
Hispanic/Latinx | 6 (24) |
Not Hispanic/Latine/x | 19 (76) |
20–29 | 8 (32) |
30–39 | 12 (48) |
40–49 | 5 (20) |
15–19 | 4 (16) |
20–29 | 10 (40) |
30–39 | 11 (44) |
Less than 2 years | 3 (12) |
At least 2, but less than 5 years | 8 (32) |
At least 5, but less than 10 years | 11 (44) |
10 or more years | 3 (12) |
Less than 2 years | 5 (20) |
More than 2, but less than 5 years | 12 (48) |
More than 5, but less than 10 years | 5 (20) |
10 or more years | 3 (12) |
Breast | 5 (20) |
Chromophobe Renal Cell Carcinoma | 1 (4) |
Hodgkin’s Lymphoma | 4 (16) |
Leukemia | 7 (28) |
Lung | 1 (4) |
Myelodysplastic Syndromes (MDS) | 1 (4) |
Osteosarcoma | 1 (4) |
Ovarian | 1 (4) |
Sarcoma | 1 (4) |
Testicular | 3 (12) |
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Figueroa Gray, M.S.; Shapiro, L.; Dorsey, C.N.; Randall, S.; Casperson, M.; Chawla, N.; Zebrack, B.; Fujii, M.M.; Hahn, E.E.; Keegan, T.H.M.; et al. A Patient-Centered Conceptual Model of AYA Cancer Survivorship Care Informed by a Qualitative Interview Study. Cancers 2024 , 16 , 3073. https://doi.org/10.3390/cancers16173073
Figueroa Gray MS, Shapiro L, Dorsey CN, Randall S, Casperson M, Chawla N, Zebrack B, Fujii MM, Hahn EE, Keegan THM, et al. A Patient-Centered Conceptual Model of AYA Cancer Survivorship Care Informed by a Qualitative Interview Study. Cancers . 2024; 16(17):3073. https://doi.org/10.3390/cancers16173073
Figueroa Gray, Marlaine S., Lily Shapiro, Caitlin N. Dorsey, Sarah Randall, Mallory Casperson, Neetu Chawla, Brad Zebrack, Monica M. Fujii, Erin E. Hahn, Theresa H. M. Keegan, and et al. 2024. "A Patient-Centered Conceptual Model of AYA Cancer Survivorship Care Informed by a Qualitative Interview Study" Cancers 16, no. 17: 3073. https://doi.org/10.3390/cancers16173073
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Asthma, a prevalent chronic inflammatory disorder, is shaped by a multifaceted interplay between genetic susceptibilities and environmental exposures. Despite strides in deciphering its pathophysiological landscape, the intricate molecular underpinnings of asthma remain elusive. The focus has increasingly shifted toward the metabolic aberrations accompanying asthma, particularly within the domain of pyrimidine metabolism (PyM)—a critical pathway in nucleotide synthesis and degradation. While the therapeutic relevance of PyM has been recognized across various diseases, its specific contributions to asthma pathology are yet underexplored. This study employs sophisticated bioinformatics approaches to delineate and confirm the involvement of PyM genes (PyMGs) in asthma, aiming to bridge this significant gap in knowledge.
Employing cutting-edge bioinformatics techniques, this research aimed to elucidate the role of PyMGs in asthma. We conducted a detailed examination of 31 PyMGs to assess their differential expression. Through Gene Set Enrichment Analysis (GSEA) and Gene Set Variation Analysis (GSVA), we explored the biological functions and pathways linked to these genes. We utilized Lasso regression and Support Vector Machine-Recursive Feature Elimination (SVM-RFE) to pinpoint critical hub genes and to ascertain the diagnostic accuracy of eight PyMGs in distinguishing asthma, complemented by an extensive correlation study with the clinical features of the disease. Validation of the gene expressions was performed using datasets GSE76262 and GSE147878.
Our analyses revealed that eleven PyMGs—DHODH, UMPS, NME7, NME1, POLR2B, POLR3B, POLR1C, POLE, ENPP3, RRM2B, TK2—are significantly associated with asthma. These genes play crucial roles in essential biological processes such as RNA splicing, anatomical structure maintenance, and metabolic processes involving purine compounds.
This investigation identifies eleven PyMGs at the core of asthma's pathogenesis, establishing them as potential biomarkers for this disease. Our findings enhance the understanding of asthma’s molecular mechanisms and open new avenues for improving diagnostics, monitoring, and progression evaluation. By providing new insights into non-cancerous pathologies, our work introduces a novel perspective and sets the stage for further studies in this field.
Asthma, a chronic and complex disease, affects over 300 million individuals globally, with projections suggesting an increase to 400 million by 2025 [ 1 ]. Characterized by pervasive airway inflammation and intricate cellular dynamics, asthma presents significant global health challenges, as indicated by the Global Asthma Network (GAN) with prevalence rates of 10.5% among children and 4.4% among adults [ 2 ]. The disease manifests through symptoms such as airway hyperresponsiveness, eosinophilic infiltration, reversible airflow obstruction, airway remodeling, mucus hypersecretion, and goblet cell hyperplasia [ 3 ]. Despite extensive research, the underlying mechanisms of asthma remain poorly understood, a consequence of its multifactorial nature involving genetic, environmental, infectious, immunological, and dietary components. Current therapeutic approaches primarily target symptom control, often leaving a considerable number of patients undermanaged [ 4 ]. This gap underscores the critical need for an in-depth investigation into the genetic and molecular bases of asthma, which could revolutionize our understanding of its onset and progression [ 5 ]. Advancements in this field promise to shift from merely managing symptoms to altering the disease trajectory, potentially transforming asthma treatment and significantly enhancing patient care worldwide [ 6 ].
PyM plays a pivotal role in the synthesis, degradation, and recycling of critical pyrimidine nucleobases, such as cytosine and uracil, which are crucial to nucleic acid structures. Beyond its foundational role in nucleic acid synthesis, PyM is intricately linked to broader aspects of energy metabolism through its biosynthetic and catabolic pathways, encompassing both de novo and salvage routes [ 7 ]. These pathways are particularly vital in rapidly dividing cells [ 8 ]. Disruptions in PyM pathways can lead to a range of inherited metabolic and autoimmune inflammatory disorders, including asthma. Recent studies highlight the role of microRNAs, notably miR-146a and miR-155, in promoting asthma by downregulating genes that typically suppress cell proliferation [ 9 ]. Furthermore, modulation of these microRNAs through TSHR-mediated pathways reveals insights into the fibroproliferative characteristics of asthma. Research by Madera-Salcedo et al. has shown that inflammation-induced hypermethylation of PPP2R2B (B55ß) leads to resistance to apoptosis in the absence of cytokines [ 10 ]. Concurrently, Zhu et al. demonstrated how UBE2T exacerbates the progression of hepatocellular carcinoma by influencing PyM [ 11 ]. This research aims to dissect the role of PyMGs in asthma immunotherapy, seeking to uncover new therapeutic opportunities by investigating purinosome formation and the glutamine pyrimidine metabolism pathway [ 12 ]. Despite significant progress, the impact of PyM on the immunogenic landscape and its critical role in enhancing the efficacy of immunotherapies for asthma remain poorly understood. This study is committed to a comprehensive assessment of PyMGs and their integration with immunotherapeutic strategies in asthma, potentially leading to transformative clinical advancements.
The Asthma Initiative heralds a transformative leap in biomedical research, integrating comprehensive transcriptomic sequencing with detailed clinical annotations to elucidate the transcriptional and molecular intricacies of asthma [ 13 , 14 , 15 ]. This project employs cutting-edge bioinformatics to navigate vast datasets, aiming to unveil the complex pathophysiological foundations of the disease. Notably, the role of PyMGs in the asthma schema remains underexplored. Our study addresses this oversight by utilizing asthma-specific datasets from the GEO to investigate the impact and relevance of PyMGs on asthma pathogenesis, as illustrated in Fig. 1 . Through this focused analysis, we aim to enhance our understanding of asthma’s molecular basis and pave the way for novel therapeutic strategies.
The methodologies proposed by Zi-Xuan Wu et al. in 2023 were employed in this study [ 16 ].
GEO was searched for mRNA expression. Series: GSE76262 and GSE147878. Platform: GPL13158 and GPL6480. Strategy for searching (‘Parkinson’ [MeSH] mRNA [All Fields] and normal) AND (‘Homo sapiens’ [Organism] AND ‘Non-coding RNA profiling by array’ [Filter]). Specifically, this investigation harnessed the datasets GSE76262 and GSE147878, underpinned by the GPL13158 and GPL6480 platform. GSE76262 functioned as the training cohort, while GSE147878 constituted the testing group (Table 1 ). We also identified PyMGs from the MSigDB (Table S1).
Our methodology for extracting precise mRNA profiles involved the utilization of Perl scripts to meticulously match and sort transcriptional data from the GSE76262 dataset. Following normalization procedures, we applied stringent criteria for identifying differential expression among PyMGs: FDR < 0.05 and |log2FC|≥ 1. This rigorous approach enabled the isolation of significantly altered PyMGs for further scrutiny. To elucidate the intricate relationships among these genes, Pearson's correlation coefficient was harnessed, leveraging the corrplot package in R for comprehensive correlation analysis. This step was pivotal in highlighting genes with statistically significant associations within the identified modules.
To elucidate the biological implications and pathway involvements of the differentially expressed genes (DEGs), we conducted comprehensive Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) analyses. Employing the R programming language, we investigated the impact of differentially expressed PyMGs on biological processes (BP), molecular functions (MF), and cellular components (CC). This analysis aimed to delineate the overarching biological themes and molecular pathways influenced by these genes, thereby enhancing our understanding of their roles in disease pathology and identifying potential therapeutic targets. Through this multi-faceted approach, we not only categorized the DEGs but also shed light on the intricate interplay between purine metabolism and its broader biological and clinical significance.
In our pursuit of a predictive model characterized by unparalleled precision and reliability, we utilized the glmnet package for Lasso regression analysis, complemented by cross-validation, to refine and enhance our model. This methodology effectively mitigated overfitting, thereby boosting the model's predictive capability for complex biological datasets. For further validation, we employed the sophisticated SVM-RFE algorithm using the e1071 package, meticulously constructing a machine learning model. Cross-validation was pivotal in assessing the model's error rates and accuracy, ensuring its robustness and dependability. The Random Forest algorithm, renowned for its efficacy in ensemble learning, was integral to our analysis. By generating multiple decision trees and aggregating their predictions, it minimized overfitting risks and enhanced model generalization. The algorithm's distinctive feature—random feature selection and bootstrap sampling—fostered diversity among decision trees, thus improving the model's overall accuracy. Utilizing the randomForest and ggplot2 packages, we concentrated on analyzing differentially expressed genes, identifying key genes crucial for disease classification. In the final phase, we ranked the significance of these feature genes using an integrated approach that synthesized insights from Lasso regression, Random Forest, and SVM models. This provided a nuanced understanding of their roles in disease pathology. Furthermore, the CIBERSORT algorithm enabled us to analyze the immune cell composition, offering deeper insights into the immune landscape associated with the disease. This comprehensive and rigorous analytical approach not only augmented the accuracy of disease classification but also unveiled new avenues for understanding the molecular basis of the disease.
To elucidate the functional dynamics and pathway alterations across a spectrum of samples, we employed Gene Set Enrichment Analysis (GSEA) and Gene Set Variation Analysis (GSVA). These powerful methodologies enabled the identification of functionally related gene sets and pathway changes, utilizing quantitative scores and visual representations to highlight active biological processes and pathways within various risk stratifications. Using R, we thoroughly investigated the impact of differentially expressed PyMGs on BP, MF, CC, and pathways, providing a granular understanding of their roles in disease mechanisms. This approach allowed us to uncover the intricate biological themes and molecular pathways influenced by these genes, thereby enhancing our comprehension of their involvement in disease pathology.
As bioinformatics in asthma research progresses towards pinpointing viable biomarkers, the construction of biological models and the identification of effective markers for disease diagnostics have become increasingly critical. Grasping the clinical relevance of these biomarkers is essential for crafting targeted therapeutic approaches. Anticipating drug reactions based on these pivotal markers is fundamental for the development of future preventative measures and therapeutic regimens for asthma. In this vein, validated biomarkers stand as crucial reference points. Thus, precise prediction of drug-gene interactions holds paramount significance. In this study, the Drug-Gene Interaction database (DGIdb) ( https://dgidb.genome.wustl.edu/ ) was utilized to forecast interactions between the identified hub genes and prospective therapeutic agents, highlighting the potential for targeted intervention strategies in asthma management.
The regulatory landscape of genetics is profoundly influenced by non-coding RNA transcripts, particularly microRNAs (miRNAs) and long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs). miRNAs modulate gene expression by enhancing or repressing mRNA degradation and translation, while lncRNAs, consisting of over 200 nucleotides, orchestrate a multitude of cellular processes through mechanisms such as chromosomal modifications, transcriptional activation, and interference. Recent studies have illuminated the extensive interplay between miRNAs and lncRNAs, fostering a competitive binding scenario among miRNAs, lncRNAs, and other regulatory entities. This interaction has led to the concept of competitive endogenous RNAs (ceRNAs), where lncRNAs can regulate gene expression by sequestering miRNAs. In light of these findings, our investigation aims to determine whether specific miRNAs and lncRNAs share regulatory mechanisms and developmental pathways in Asthma, potentially unveiling novel avenues for understanding and treating this complex condition.
To elucidate the interactive landscape among mRNA, miRNA, and lncRNA entities in Asthma, we sourced target gene information from miRTarBase and PrognoScan, databases renowned for providing empirically validated miRNA-lncRNA-target interactions. By intersecting the target genes of common mRNA-miRNA-lncRNA interactions with Asthma-associated genes, we established a regulated network. This network was visualized using Cytoscape software, providing a graphical representation of the molecular interplay critical to Asthma pathophysiology.
To ensure the independence of exposure and outcome variables in our genome-wide association study (GWAS) summary data, we engaged in an association analysis via the TwoSampleMR package in R. Designating NME7 and POLR2B-related expression as the exposure and Asthma as the outcome, we aimed to explore potential causal relationships. The analysis entailed: 1. Instrumental Variables (IVs) Configuration: NME7 and POLR2B-related expressions were screened with a P-value threshold of < 5 × 10^-8 to identify strongly associated exposures. 2. Independence Configuration: Linkage disequilibrium (LD) between SNPs was calculated using the PLINK clustering method, excluding SNPs with LD coefficient r^2 > 0.001 and within 10,000 kb to ensure SNP independence and reduce pleiotropic biases. 3. Statistical Strength Configuration: The robustness of instrumental variables was assessed using the F-statistic (F = β^2/SE^2), with variables having F < 10 deemed inadequate to mitigate confounding effects.
Leveraging GWAS data, SNPs associated with the instrumental variables were identified, and through the “harmonise_data” function within TwoSampleMR, we aligned allelic directions of exposure and outcome, excluding incompatible SNPs. The inverse variance-weighted (IVW) method served as the cornerstone for causal inference, employing the variance of instrumental variables as weights to determine causal dynamics, thereby advancing our understanding of the genetic architecture underlying disease states.
ADCY4 and PNPT1 were docked to verify the accuracy of principal components and prediction targets. The protein configurations of the core targets were obtained from the Uniprot database by using the minimum resolution (Resolution) and the source (Method) as X-ray as the screening condition, and the crystal structure of these protein configurations were obtained from the RCSB PDB database). 2D structures of 6 active components of core targets were obtained from PubChen database, and these 2D structures were minimized by chem3d software. The binding strength and activity of active components and targets were evaluated by SYBYL2.0 software, and the active components of binding TotalScore greater than 3 were selected for sub-docking. Then imported the crystal into the Pymol 2.4 for dehydration, hydrogenation, and separation of ligands; it then imported AutoDockTools 1.5.6 to construct the docking grid box for each target. Docking was completed by Vina 1.1.2 software, and the molecules with the lowest binding energy in the docking conformation were selected to observe the binding effect by matching with the original ligands and intermolecular interactions (such as hydrophobicity, cation-π, anion-π, π-π stacking, hydrogen bonding, etc.). Finally, the Pymol2.4 software was utilized to visualize the molecular docking.
Among the 31 examined PyMGs, several exhibited significant differences in expression levels. Furthermore, gene clustering analysis revealed distinct clusters in the treatment and control groups. Notable PyMGs in the treatment group included DHODH, POLE, UCK2, ENTPD1, NT5E, UPB1, ENPP1, TXNRD1, while control group PyMGs comprised PNPT1, POLR3F, PRIM2, POLR2C, POLR2G, POLR1D, POLR2B (Fig. 2 a). Correlation analysis was conducted among these PyMGs, and a correlation matrix was generated for visualization (Fig. 2 b) (Table S2).
Principal Component Analysis. a Analysis of difference. b Analysis of correlation
GO enrichment analysis identified 290 core target genes, encompassing BP, MF, and CC. The MF category primarily involved nucleoside binding (GO: 0001882), catalytic activity, acting on RNA (GO: 0140098), ribonucleoside binding (GO: 0032549). The CC category was mainly associated with transferase complex, transferring phosphorus-containing groups (GO: 0061695), nuclear chromosome (GO: 0000228), RNA polymerase complex (GO: 0030880). The BP category included RNA splicing (GO: 0008380), anatomical structure homeostasis (GO: 0060249), purine-containing compound metabolic process (GO: 0072521). KEGG enrichment analysis revealed that the upregulated genes were primarily involved in Pyrimidine metabolism (hsa00240), Huntington's disease (hsa05016), Purine metabolism (hsa00230) (Fig. 3 and Table S3a, b).
For PyMGs, GO, and KEGG analyses were performed. a The GO circle illustrates the scatter map of the selected gene’s logFC. b The KEGG barplot and bubble illustrates the scatter map of the logFC of the indicated gene
In our study, we meticulously established a gene signature by employing LASSO and Cox regression analysis, judiciously selecting the optimal value, as depicted in Fig. 4 a, b. To validate the precision and reliability of our model, we constructed a machine learning model using SVM-RFE. This model demonstrated exceptional accuracy, achieving a score of 0.863, and maintained a minimal error rate of 0.137, as shown in Fig. 4 c, d. Some key genes were screened by random forest tree, including NME7, POLR3C, ENTPD4, ENPP1, UCKL1, etc. (Fig. 4 e, f). The intersection of the 11 PyMGs identified by LASSO, RF and SVM revealed strong concordance (Fig. 4 g). Upon evaluating the model in relation to the 11 hub genes, we observed notably high accuracy rates for each gene: DHODH (AUC = 0.680), UMPS (AUC = 0.823), NME7 (AUC = 0.776), NME1 (AUC = 0.767), POLR2B (AUC = 0.672), POLR3B (AUC = 0.775), POLR1C (AUC = 0.637), POLE (AUC = 0.699), ENPP3 (AUC = 0.679), RRM2B (AUC = 0.744), TK2 (AUC = 0.720) (Fig. 4 f). Remarkably, an AUC of 0.934 (95% CI 0.887−0.973) was achieved in dataset GSE76262, underscoring the high accuracy and robustness of our prediction model (Fig. 4 g) (Table 1 and S4). In evaluating the performance of our study, particularly with regard to the AUC, a detailed analysis of Fig. 4 demonstrates an impressive AUC value of 0.934, underscoring the high accuracy of our model. Addressing concerns about the lower AUC values observed for certain genes, it is essential to consider the influence of individual genetic variations on these outcomes. Despite these variations, it is important to note that the aggregated AUC values for these genes consistently approximate a significant benchmark of 0.7. This collective result substantiates the overall credibility, precision, and robustness of our predictive model, affirming its utility in both clinical and research contexts.
The development of the PyMGs signature. a Regression of the 11 Asthma-related genes using LASSO. b Cross-validation is used in the LASSO regression to fine-tune parameter selection. c , d Accuracy and error of this model. e , f : RF. g Venn. h AUC of 10 hub genes. i AUC of train group
In this study, the AUC of each gene in the test group, the Rank ranking of each gene, and the results of the test group validation were observed. We found that NME7 and POLR2B may be the most relevant genes. Through literature evaluation and analysis of hub gene sensitivity within the model, it was determined that NME7 and POLR2B may be the most relevant genes to Asthma. In terms of GO analysis, NME7 was found to be associated with CC ribosome, MF cytokine receptor activity, MF structural constituent of ribosome. On the other hand, POLR2B was primarily involved in the CC mitochondrial protein containing complex, CC organellar ribosome, CC ribosomal subunit (Fig. 5 a). In KEGG analysis, NME7 was mainly associated with cytokine cytokine receptor interaction, neuroactive ligand receptor interaction, oxidative phosphorylation, while POLR2B was involved in neuroactive ligand receptor interaction, oxidative phosphorylation, parkinsons disease (Fig. 5 b) (Table S5).
GSEA of Analysis in NME7 and POLR2B. a GO. b KEGG
In this investigation, we explore the nuanced role of the immune microenvironment in the onset and progression of asthma, a complex condition shaped by the dynamics of immune cell interactions. Our extensive analysis was designed to unravel the expression patterns and interrelations of these cells, utilizing violin plots to vividly delineate the differential expression profiles of immune cells in control versus asthma-impacted tissues. These graphical representations distinctly showcased an upregulation of activated mast cells, eosinophils, and both resting and activated dendritic cells in the control samples. Conversely, tissues afflicted by asthma exhibited heightened levels of CD8 T cells, follicular helper T cells, and both M0 and M2 macrophages, illuminating the altered or engaged immune response mechanisms in asthma. This endeavor aimed to elucidate the potential genetic interplays with, or influences by, the immune microenvironment in asthma, striving to enrich our comprehension of the disease's pathophysiological underpinnings. The results, showcased in Fig. 6 a, reveal a complex symbiosis between immune cells and genetic factors, broadening our understanding of the intricate immune-genetic interplay in asthma. In addition, we added NME7 and POLR2B to the immune infiltration analysis of their respective genes alone.
Expression of Immune cells. a Expression of immune cells in different clusters. b NME7. c POLR2B
In the GO analysis, NME7 was primarily associated with CC septin cytoskeleton, BP negative regulation of myoblast proliferation, BP axonemal central apparatus assembly, MF olfactory receptor binding, CC iga immunoglobulin complex. POLR2B was mainly involved in the MF udp xylosyltransferase activity, BP regulation of mirna catabolic process, BP positive regulation of mirna catabolic process, CC fancm mhf complex, MF glycine n acyltransferase activity (Fig. 7 a). In terms of KEGG analysis, NME7 was mainly associated with glycosaminoglycan degradation, taurine and hypotaurine metabolism, renin angiotensin system, glycosphingolipid biosynthesis lacto and neolacto series, asthma, sulfur metabolism. POLR2B was involved in glycosaminoglycan biosynthesis heparan sulfate, linoleic acid metabolism, arachidonic acid metabolism, taste transduction, retinol metabolism, nitrogen metabolism (Fig. 7 b).
GSVA of Analysis in NME7 and POLR2B. a GO. b KEGG
Some drugs were predicted to interact with the eleven hub genes, including leflunomide, teriflunomide, vidofludimus, chembl1164954, leucovorin (Table S6) (Fig. 8 ). The investigation unveiled eleven PyMGs—DHODH, UMPS, NME7, NME1, POLR2B, POLR3B, POLR1C, POLE, ENPP3, RRM2B, TK2—significantly associated with asthma. According to rank, NME7 and POLR2B were selected for molecular docking. To verify the credibility of our results. We performed molecular docking of NME7 and POLR2B with CHEMBL1164954, LEFLUNOMIDE, TERIFLUNOMIDE, ZALCITABINE (Table 2 and Fig. 9 ).
Drug-gene interactions. Red circles are up-regulated genes, green hexagons are down-regulated genes, and blue squares are associated drugs
Molecular docking results. a UMPS. b DHODH
A total of 212 miRNAs and 241 lncRNAs associated with Asthma were identified from three databases (Table S7a, b). Table S7 shows the matching of these genes against the corresponding miRNA database. These databases include miRanda [ 17 ], miRDB [ 18 ], and TargetScan [ 19 ]. When the corresponding database matched the relevant miRNA, the score was marked as 1. It can be seen that when all three databases can be matched, it is 3 points. The miRNA was matched by spongeScan database [ 20 ] to obtain the corresponding lncRNA data. The miRNA-lncRNA-gene network was constructed by intersecting these non-coding RNAs with the shared genes obtained through Lasso regression and SVM-RFE. The network consisted of 190 lncRNAs, 182 miRNAs, and some common genes, including the 11 hub genes (NME7, TK2, UMPS, POLE, ENPP3, POLR1C, DHODH, RRM2B, POLR3B, NME1, POLR2B) (Fig. 10 ).
miRNAs-LncRNAs shared Genes Network. Red circles are mrnas, blue quadrangles are miRNAs, and green triangles are lncRNAs
To enhance the confidence and prediction accuracy of the model, GSE147878 dataset was used for validation. The GSE147878 analysis further confirming their potential relevance to Asthma (Fig. 11 ).
eleven hub genes were validated
The Boxplots depicted the residual expression patterns of these genes in Asthma (Fig. 12 a). There are some differences in the proportions of the four different modes (Fig. 12 b, c). The PyMGs' diagnostic capacity in distinguishing Asthma from control samples revealed a satisfactory diagnostic value, with an AUC of RF: 0.967; SVM: 0.919; XGB: 0.943; GLM: 0.933 (Fig. 12 c). An AUC of 1.000 (95% CI 1.000–1.000) in GSE147878 (Fig. 12 d).
Model verification. a Residual expression patterns. b , c Model expression patterns ( d ) AUC of model. e AUC of test group
In our exploration of the intrinsic connection between NME7 and POLR2B, and asthma forest plots were meticulously employed to visually articulate the associations. For NME7, the all SNPs (rs73078636, rs10178845, rs11071559, rs2460555, rs7734635, rs5743618, etc.) conspicuously positioned itself to the right of the confidence interval, indicating a positive association. (Fig. 13 a). In the case of POLR2B, all SNPs (rs10178845, rs11071559, rs2460555, rs7734635, rs5743618, rs61957178, rs4795399, etc.) were all situated to the right of the confidence interva, suggesting a similar trend of association with asthmal (Fig. 13 b). Further dissecting the heterogeneity inherent in our analysis, the funnel plot tailored to asthma revealed a deviation from the expected symmetrical distribution, albeit maintaining a general symmetry. This nuanced observation was further scrutinized through sensitivity analysis, employing a “leave-one-out” approach. Remarkably, the omission of any individual SNP from the analysis had a negligible effect on the results of the Inverse Variance Weighted (IVW) analysis, indicating that the remaining SNPs consistently mirrored the outcomes of the aggregate dataset. Substantiating the validity of our findings, the MR-Egger regression analysis was invoked, providing a solid foundation that bolsters both the robustness and authenticity of our results and the methodologies applied. This Mendelian randomization analysis unequivocally confirms the intimate association of NME7 and POLR2B with asthma. Hence, it delineates a potential pathway to modulate the incidence, evolution, and progression of asthma by intervening in the functions of NME7 and POLR2B, presenting a promising avenue for therapeutic intervention and a deeper understanding of the disease mechanism.
Mendelian Randomization Analysis. a NME7. b POLR2B
Asthma, a chronic inflammatory disorder of the airways, presents a significant global health challenge, with the Global Asthma Network (GAN) study reporting prevalence rates of 10.5% in children and 4.4% in adults [ 21 ]. Characterized by airway inflammation, hyperresponsiveness, mucus hypersecretion, and remodeling, the pathophysiology of asthma is complex, resulting from a multifaceted interplay of genetic and environmental factors [ 22 ]. Despite the availability of treatments primarily aimed at symptomatic relief, a substantial proportion of patients remain inadequately managed, highlighting the urgent need for advanced therapeutic interventions [ 23 ]. In this context, the identification of asthma biomarkers through comprehensive bioinformatic analysis is a critical endeavor. This approach aims to unravel the complex mechanisms underlying asthma and uncover novel therapeutic targets, potentially shifting asthma management towards early detection and precise disease characterization [ 24 ]. PyM is essential for the synthesis, breakdown, and utilization of key pyrimidine nucleobases, such as cytosine and uracil, which are integral to nucleic acid structures and energy metabolism [ 8 ]. Dysregulation of PyM pathways is implicated in various inherited metabolic disorders, including autoimmune inflammatory diseases [ 9 ]. Recent studies have highlighted the role of microRNAs, such as miR-146a and miR-155, in modulating cell proliferation in asthma by targeting genes that inhibit cell growth, and the TSHR-mediated regulation of these microRNAs in asthma's fibroproliferative pathology [ 10 ]. Additionally, research has identified dysregulation in PPP2R2B (B55ß) through inflammation-driven hypermethylation, affecting apoptosis resistance, and the role of UBE2T in exacerbating hepatocellular carcinoma by influencing PyM [ 12 ]. This study focuses on PyMGs and their relevance in asthma immunotherapy, exploring new therapeutic avenues through the investigation of purinosome formation and the glutamine pyrimidine metabolism pathway [ 25 ]. Despite advancements, the impact of PyM on the immunogenic landscape and its role in modulating immunotherapy efficacy in asthma remains to be fully elucidated. Our research aims to conduct a thorough analysis of PyMGs and their interaction with immunotherapeutic strategies in asthma, paving the way for groundbreaking clinical progress.
In our comprehensive study, we identified a network of 31 DEGs intricately associated with PyMGs in asthma. Utilizing a rigorous analytical framework that combines DEG analysis, Lasso regression, and SVM-RFE, we identified eleven critical PyMGs: DHODH, UMPS, NME7, NME1, POLR2B, POLR3B, POLR1C, POLE, ENPP3, RRM2B, and TK2. These genes have demonstrated significant diagnostic relevance in asthma, a finding further validated by external datasets, underscoring their essential role in the disease's pathogenesis. However, our research also revealed a significant gap in understanding the interaction between these genes and specific transcription factors, especially within the context of purine metabolism. Notably, NME7 and POLR2B emerged as key mediators in the link between asthma and PyMGs. Further investigation into their biological functions indicated their involvement in various immune-related processes, including RNA splicing, anatomical structure homeostasis, and the metabolic processing of purine-containing compounds. This finding suggests that PyMGs may regulate a broad spectrum of biological pathways, particularly those related to immune responses, thereby potentially influencing the pathophysiological progression of asthma. Our results propose that these genes are crucial in understanding asthma’s progression and could unveil new avenues for therapeutic targeting, presenting promising opportunities for future research and the development of treatment strategies. This underscores the paramount importance of PyMGs within the molecular landscape of asthma, indicating a novel direction in the quest to understand and mitigate this complex disease.
The investigation into PyM, a cornerstone of cellular energy balance and proliferation, has revealed its extensive implications across various diseases and metabolic disorders. In the intricate landscape of asthma pathogenesis, recent research has highlighted the critical roles of NME7 and POLR2B in shaping the molecular framework of this disease. Asthma, characterized by chronic airway inflammation, hyperresponsiveness, and reversible airflow obstruction, arises from a complex interplay of genetic, environmental, and immunological factors [ 26 ]. Identifying NME7 and POLR2B as key players in this intricate narrative adds a new dimension to our understanding of asthma's origins and potential therapeutic avenues. NME7, associated with intracellular signaling and cellular differentiation pathways, has been significantly linked to asthma [ 27 ]. Its role in modulating signal transduction pathways underscores its impact on the inflammatory cascade and airway smooth muscle cell dynamics, which are integral to asthma's pathophysiology [ 28 ]. However, the precise mechanisms by which NME7 influences asthma require further elucidation. The gene's association with asthma suggests that any deviation in NME7's expression or functionality could exacerbate the inflammatory environment, leading to increased asthma symptoms and airway structural changes [ 29 ]. Similarly, POLR2B, a vital component of the RNA polymerase II complex essential for mRNA synthesis, has been identified as a gene of interest in asthma research. Its fundamental role in gene expression regulation positions POLR2B as a key mediator in asthma by controlling genes involved in immune responses and airway inflammation [ 30 ]. Changes in POLR2B expression or function could alter the transcriptional profile of asthma-related genes, influencing disease severity and the effectiveness of therapeutic interventions. Furthermore, analyses of the GSE147878 dataset have highlighted PyM-related markers as emerging prognostic indicators in asthma, representing a dynamic frontier in genomic exploration. These insights pave the way for innovative therapeutic strategies in asthma management, heralding the advent of personalized medicine in contemporary healthcare. This body of research not only deepens our understanding of asthma's molecular etiology but also underscores the potential of targeted genetic and molecular interventions in revolutionizing asthma treatment paradigms.
Asthma, a chronic disorder, is characterized by persistent airway inflammation and increased reactivity, resulting from a complex interplay between host immune mechanisms and environmental factors within the pulmonary environment. The pathogenesis of asthma is marked by an imbalance between the innate and adaptive immune systems in the airways [ 31 ]. Environmental triggers—such as allergens, pollutants, and respiratory pathogens—induce airway epithelial cells to initiate an immune response, characterized by the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines. This response recruits various innate immune cells, including neutrophils, macrophages, dendritic cells, and innate lymphoid cells, leading to acute inflammation [ 32 ]. Simultaneously, dysregulation of adaptive immune responses, particularly within T-helper (Th) cell subsets, plays a crucial role in sustaining chronic inflammation and structural changes characteristic of asthma [ 33 ]. A shift towards Th2-dominated responses, marked by the secretion of interleukins (IL)-4, IL-5, and IL-13, promotes eosinophilic inflammation, airway hyperresponsiveness, and excessive mucus production [ 34 ]. Additionally, recent studies have highlighted the significant roles of aberrant Th17 and regulatory T cell (Treg) functions in modulating airway inflammation and remodeling, adding complexity to our understanding of asthma’s immunology. Our analysis, utilizing violin plot visualizations, has identified distinct immune cell expression profiles. The control group exhibited higher levels of activated mast cells, eosinophils, and both resting and activated dendritic cells. In contrast, the treatment group showed increased levels of CD8 T cells, follicular helper T cells, and both M0 and M2 macrophages. These findings provide deeper insights into the immune landscape of asthma. These observations underscore the importance of elucidating immune pathways to advance innovative therapeutic strategies. Immunomodulatory interventions, aimed at reducing inflammation and correcting immune dysregulation, present a promising avenue for novel asthma treatments. This research heralds a new era in targeted therapeutic interventions, poised to reshape the future of asthma therapy by emphasizing the critical role of immune pathways in understanding and managing the disease.
The merging of asthma research with metabolic studies marks a groundbreaking phase in medical science, energized by the adoption of advanced bioinformatics techniques. This shift has significantly broadened our understanding of the molecular complexity and diverse pathological expressions of asthma [ 35 , 36 , 37 ]. The scientific community's collaborative efforts have been crucial in deciphering the molecular foundations and clinical spectrum of this disease. Our research represents a pivotal advancement in this burgeoning field, highlighting the critical role of PyMGs within the asthma paradigm. Utilizing extensive datasets from the GEO, specifically GSE76262 and GSE147878, we have applied a comprehensive suite of analytical tools, including GO, KEGG, and GSEA. These tools have enabled the development of a sophisticated predictive model that illuminates the intricate role of PyMGs in asthma's etiology. Our work establishes a foundational theoretical framework while also opening new pathways for investigating the metabolic imbalances at the heart of asthma and developing targeted therapeutic approaches. However, the necessity for further empirical research to confirm the mechanisms proposed in our findings is paramount. Such validation, achievable through rigorous in vivo and in vitro testing, is essential to deepen our understanding of asthma. These exacting scientific endeavors are vital for progressing towards effective treatment solutions, shaping the future of asthma research and therapeutic development.
Within the complex landscape of asthma, PyMGs play a central role, orchestrating a broad array of biological interactions, pathways, signaling cascades, and regulatory mechanisms. At the core of asthma's molecular framework, PyMGs underlie the synthesis of key biomolecules such as DHODH, UMPS, NME7, NME1, POLR2B, POLR3B, POLR1C, POLE, ENPP3, RRM2B, and TK2, which are crucial in essential physiological processes and metabolic regulation related to asthma. Notably, NME7 and POLR2B are distinguished by their significant regulatory effects on metabolic pathways, profoundly influencing asthma's pathophysiological terrain. Our investigations into PyMGs highlight their vital role in the metabolic imbalances characteristic of asthma, proposing the targeting of these pathways as a viable therapeutic strategy.
The datasets generated and/or analysed during the current study are available in the [GEO] repository. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/geo/ .
Gene ontology
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Kyoto encyclopedia of genes and genomes
Gene expression omnibus
Pyrimidine metabolism genes
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The Second “Xinglin Scholars-Nursing Youth” Program of Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine (2023HLXL09); Science and Technology Development Project (Nursing Special Project), Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine 23HLZX06.
Dihui Zhang and Xiaowei Pu contributed equally to this article as the first author.
Orthopedics department The Second Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine (Guangdong Provincial Hospital of Chinese Medicine), Guangzhou, 510000, China
Dihui Zhang
Shuguang Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, 200021, China
Xiaowei Pu & Jia Chen
Dongying People’s Hospital (Dongying Hospital of Shandong Provincial Hospital Group), Dongying, 257091, Shandong, People’s Republic of China
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Dihui Zhang and Xiaowei Pu drafted and revised the manuscript. Dihui Zhang and Man Zheng were in charge of data collection. Dihui Zhang and Xiaowei Pu were in charge of design of frame. Jia Chen and Guanghui Li conceived and designed this article, in charge of syntax modification and revised of the manuscript. All the authors have read and agreed to the final version manuscript.
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Zhang, D., Pu, X., Zheng, M. et al. Employing a synergistic bioinformatics and machine learning framework to elucidate biomarkers associating asthma with pyrimidine metabolism genes. Respir Res 25 , 327 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12931-024-02954-4
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In addition to the established risk factors for cardiovascular disease—such as high blood pressure, high cholesterol, diabetes, obesity, smoking, and lack of physical activity—another factor must now be considered: clonal hematopoiesis. This condition, caused by acquired mutations in blood stem cells, has already been linked to an increased risk of cardiovascular events.
However, until now it was uncertain if clonal hematopoiesis was a cause or consequence of cardiovascular disease . Now, a new study published in Nature Medicine and carried out by researchers at the Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Cardiovasculares (CNIC) resolves this critical debate by establishing clonal hematopoiesis as a new risk factor for atherosclerosis—the formation of lesions in the arterial wall that underlies most cardiovascular disorders.
In a second study, published in the European Heart Journal , the CNIC scientists propose the ancient medication colchicine as the central plank of personalized strategies to alleviate the effects of clonal hematopoiesis associated with acquired mutations in the TET2 gene. The results of these important studies will be presented today at the European Society of Cardiology meeting in London, UK.
An adult person produces hundreds of thousands of blood cells every day. This high rate of cell division unavoidably entails the accumulation of DNA mutations in the dividing cells. These mutations are known as somatic mutations, and are acquired, not inherited. “Although most somatic mutations are innocuous, some give the affected cells a competitive advantage that allows them to expand and progressively accumulate, generating clonal populations of mutated blood cells, a phenomenon known as clonal hematopoiesis,” explained José Javier Fuster, who led the Nature Medicine study, for which it has received support from Fundación “la Caixa” .
These mutations had already been proposed as a possible risk factor for cardiovascular disease; however, the exact nature of the relationship remained unclear. As Dr. José Javier Fuster, coordinator of the CNIC “Novel Mechanisms of Atherosclerosis” program, explained, “some earlier studies suggested that somatic mutations linked to clonal hematopoiesis contribute directly to cardiovascular disease and thereby accelerating the development of atherosclerosis. On the other hand, others proposed that it is atherosclerosis that causes clonal hematopoiesis by increasing the proliferation of blood stem cells and thereby generating a higher proportion of mutated blood cells.”
The Nature Medicine study clarifies the relationship between clonal hematopoiesis and atherosclerosis through a longitudinal analysis of data from the PESA-CNIC-Santander study. PESA (Progression of Early Subclinical Atherosclerosis) is a prospective study of more than 4000 apparently healthy middle-aged participants who have undergone periodic examinations using advanced imaging technology since 2010 to detect the presence and progression of asymptomatic atherosclerosis.
PESA is a collaborative initiative of the CNIC and Santander Bank. “The PESA study has already made very important contributions to our understanding of cardiovascular disease, and its longitudinal nature and unique characteristics provide an ideal framework for carrying out this important study on the relationship between clonal hematopoiesis and atherosclerosis,” said Dr. Valentín Fuster, CNIC General Director, principal investigator on the PESA study, and co-lead author on the Nature Medicine study.
The researchers used high-sensitivity DNA sequencing technology to detect somatic mutations in blood samples and assessed the presence and progression of atherosclerosis detected with noninvasive imaging techniques in the PESA participants. “The study was a multidisciplinary effort involving specialists in basic science and cardiology, together with the specialized technical expertise of the Bioinformatics, Genomics, and Clinical Trials Units at the CNIC,” said José Javier Fuster.
The results of the study clearly demonstrate that participants who had mutations linked to clonal hematopoiesis at the start of the study were more likely to develop atherosclerosis in the following years. On the other hand, the presence and extent of atherosclerosis had no influence on the expansion of mutated blood cells. “These results indicate that the mutations contribute to the development of atherosclerosis but are not a consequence of it,” explained co-first author Miriam Díez-Díez. “However, it remains possible that other factors, such as genetic profile or lifestyle, might modulate the effects of clonal hematopoiesis, and future studies are planned to examine this possibility,” added Beatriz L. Ramos-Neble, the other co-first author on the study.
The results of the study have clear clinical implications and identify clonal hematopoiesis as a cardiovascular risk factor completely different from the traditional risk factors studied in recent decades. This novelty holds promise for the development of new strategies for the prevention of cardiovascular disorders. “By demonstrating that the mutations linked to clonal hematopoiesis precede atherosclerosis and contribute to its development, our research suggests that blocking the effects of these somatic mutations could help to prevent cardiovascular disease,” claimed Dr. José Javier Fuster. The second CNIC study, published in the European Heart Journal , lays the groundwork for this.
The best-characterized mutations linked to clonal hematopoiesis are those that affect the TET2 gene. In a 2017 study published in Science , Dr. José Javier Fuster’s team showed that mutations in TET2 accelerate the development of atherosclerosis in animal models. In the new study published in the European Heart Journal , the CNIC group, in partnership with the team led by Dr. Pradeep Natarajan at the Broad Institute in Boston, shows that the adverse effects of TET2 mutations on cardiovascular health can be alleviated by treatment with the anti-inflammatory drug colchicine.
The CNIC team demonstrated that administration of colchicine to animals with TET2 mutations slows the development of atherosclerosis to a rate similar to that seen in non-mutated animals. In parallel, the Broad Institute scientists showed that individuals with TET2 mutations and who had been treated with colchicine for other conditions had a lower risk of myocardial infarction than untreated patients with similar mutations.
Plant preparations containing colchicine have been used for thousands of years in traditional medicine, and the drug is used in modern medicine to treat inflammatory conditions such as gout. “Colchicine is a very cheap medicine, available throughout the world, and is approved for the prevention of cardiovascular disease by the European Medicines Agency and by the FDA in the USA. There is, therefore, no major obstacle to its use for the prevention of cardiovascular disease in people with TET2 mutations,” emphasized Dr. María Ángeles Zuriaga, who conducted the experimental studies at the CNIC and is the first author on the European Heart Journal study.
Dr. José Javier Fuster underlined the important implications of the study for personalized medicine. “In clonal hematopoiesis, each mutated gene acts through different mechanisms and will therefore likely require specific interventions to target its effects. This study lays the groundwork for using colchicine for/in the personalized prevention of cardiovascular disease of carriers of mutations in TET2 , but new clinical trials will be needed to conclusively demonstrate its effectiveness in these individuals.”
References: “Unidirectional association of clonal hematopoiesis with atherosclerosis development” by Miriam Díez-Díez, Beatriz L. Ramos-Neble, Jorge de la Barrera, J. C. Silla-Castro, Ana Quintas, Enrique Vázquez, M. Ascensión Rey-Martín, Benedetta Izzi, Lucía Sánchez-García, Inés García-Lunar, Guiomar Mendieta, Virginia Mass, Nuria Gómez-López, Cristina Espadas, Gema González, Antonio J. Quesada, Ana García-Álvarez, Antonio Fernández-Ortiz, Enrique Lara-Pezzi, Ana Dopazo, Fátima Sánchez-Cabo, Borja Ibáñez, Vicente Andrés, Valentín Fuster and José J. Fuster, 30 August 2024, Nature Medicine . DOI: 10.1038/s41591-024-03213-1
“Colchicine prevents accelerated atherosclerosis in TET2-mutant clonal haematopoiesis” by María A Zuriaga, Zhi Yu, Nuria Matesanz, Buu Truong, Beatriz L Ramos-Neble, Mari C Asensio-López, Md Mesbah Uddin, Tetsushi Nakao, Abhishek Niroula, Virginia Zorita, Marta Amorós-Pérez, Rosa Moro, Benjamin L Ebert, Michael C Honigberg, Domingo Pascual-Figal, Pradeep Natarajan and José J Fuster, 30 August 2024, European Heart Journal . DOI: 10.1093/eurheartj/ehae546
The PESA study is cofunded by the CNIC and Santander Bank. The two studies were additionally funded by the Spanish Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovación e Universidades (PLEC2021-008194), the Spanish cardiovascular research network (CIBERCV), Fundación “la Caixa” (LCF/PR/HR17/52150007; LCF/PR/HR22/52420011), and Fundación ‘La Marató TV3’ (202314-31).
Covid toll: big jump in cardiovascular-related deaths reported by american heart association, recent research reveals a simple trick to lower heart disease risk, coffee’s link to raised cholesterol depends on drinker’s sex plus brewing method, daily coffee may benefit the heart and help you live longer – here’s how much to drink, covid-19 infections increase risk of serious heart conditions up to a year later, pfizer covid-19 vaccine associated with increased risk of carditis (heart inflammation), new research finds eating lots of avocados has public health benefits for issues like obesity, the latest research on coffee and your risk for heart rhythm problems – good news, popular energy drinks’ harmful effects on heart revealed in new research.
“In addition to the established risk factors for cardiovascular disease—such as high blood pressure, high cholesterol, diabetes, obesity, smoking, and lack of physical activity—another factor must now be considered: clonal hematopoiesis.” What they call established risk factors I, now eighty years of age, call co-symptoms.
The group photo suggests instead of researching clonal hematopoiesis they probably should be researching allergy/gout related obesity, likely related to the theme of the article via high serum levels of uric acid and/or low levels of calcium (as per ionic, not blood serum, testing). As to the presence of mutated red blood cells, lacking the skills and resources to do genetic testing I can only suspect “…the formation of lesions in the arterial wall that underlies most cardiovascular disorders.” is caused by uric acid crystallizing in the smooth muscle tissue lining the affected arteries, caused by low core temperature due to metabolic syndrome.
Bottom line: more great research undermined by mainstream medicine’s failure to recognize and research Dr. Arthur F. Coca’s kind of allergies since the early 1930s. I’ve never tried colchicine for my own mostly asymptomatic gout but I’ve read it can have serious side effects.
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Researching Theoretical Frameworks - Research Process
Theoretical frameworks contain the arguments that define the contribution of research studies. They do this in two ways, by showing how your study extends what is known and by setting the parameters for your contribution. ... The major source for ideas that will shape the framework is the research literature. That said, conversations with ...
Steps to Developing the Perfect Conceptual Framework. Pick a question. Conduct a literature review. Identify your variables. Create your conceptual framework. 1. Pick a Question. You should already have some idea of the broad area of your research project. Try to narrow down your research field to a manageable topic in terms of time and resources.
Integration of a theoretical framework into your research ...
A research framework provides an underlying structure or model to support our collective research efforts. Up until now, we've referenced, referred to and occasionally approached research as more of an amalgamated set of activities. But as we know, research comes in many different shapes and sizes, is variable in scope, and can be used to ...
The theoretical framework strengthens the study in the following ways: An explicit statement of theoretical assumptions permits the reader to evaluate them critically. The theoretical framework connects the researcher to existing knowledge. Guided by a relevant theory, you are given a basis for your hypotheses and choice of research methods.
Purpose: Conceptual models provide frameworks to illustrate relationships among patient-, provider-, system-, and community-level factors that inform care delivery and research. Existing models of cancer survivorship care focus largely on pediatric or adult populations whose needs differ from adolescents and young adults (AYAs). We developed a patient-centered conceptual model of AYA ...
The merging of asthma research with metabolic studies marks a groundbreaking phase in medical science, energized by the adoption of advanced bioinformatics techniques. This shift has significantly broadened our understanding of the molecular complexity and diverse pathological expressions of asthma [35,36,37]. The scientific community's ...
"The PESA study has already made very important contributions to our understanding of cardiovascular disease, and its longitudinal nature and unique characteristics provide an ideal framework for carrying out this important study on the relationship between clonal hematopoiesis and atherosclerosis," said Dr. Valentín Fuster, CNIC General ...