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How to Write the Results/Findings Section in Research

What is the research paper Results section and what does it do?

The Results section of a scientific research paper represents the core findings of a study derived from the methods applied to gather and analyze information. It presents these findings in a logical sequence without bias or interpretation from the author, setting up the reader for later interpretation and evaluation in the Discussion section. A major purpose of the Results section is to break down the data into sentences that show its significance to the research question(s).

The Results section appears third in the section sequence in most scientific papers. It follows the presentation of the Methods and Materials and is presented before the Discussion section —although the Results and Discussion are presented together in many journals. This section answers the basic question “What did you find in your research?”

What is included in the Results section?

The Results section should include the findings of your study and ONLY the findings of your study. The findings include:

• Data presented in tables, charts, graphs, and other figures (may be placed into the text or on separate pages at the end of the manuscript)
• A contextual analysis of this data explaining its meaning in sentence form
• All data that corresponds to the central research question(s)
• All secondary findings (secondary outcomes, subgroup analyses, etc.)

If the scope of the study is broad, or if you studied a variety of variables, or if the methodology used yields a wide range of different results, the author should present only those results that are most relevant to the research question stated in the Introduction section .

As a general rule, any information that does not present the direct findings or outcome of the study should be left out of this section. Unless the journal requests that authors combine the Results and Discussion sections, explanations and interpretations should be omitted from the Results.

How are the results organized?

The best way to organize your Results section is “logically.” One logical and clear method of organizing research results is to provide them alongside the research questions—within each research question, present the type of data that addresses that research question.

Let’s look at an example. Your research question is based on a survey among patients who were treated at a hospital and received postoperative care. Let’s say your first research question is:

“What do hospital patients over age 55 think about postoperative care?”

This can actually be represented as a heading within your Results section, though it might be presented as a statement rather than a question:

Attitudes towards postoperative care in patients over the age of 55

Now present the results that address this specific research question first. In this case, perhaps a table illustrating data from a survey. Likert items can be included in this example. Tables can also present standard deviations, probabilities, correlation matrices, etc.

Following this, present a content analysis, in words, of one end of the spectrum of the survey or data table. In our example case, start with the POSITIVE survey responses regarding postoperative care, using descriptive phrases. For example:

“Sixty-five percent of patients over 55 responded positively to the question “ Are you satisfied with your hospital’s postoperative care ?” (Fig. 2)

Include other results such as subcategory analyses. The amount of textual description used will depend on how much interpretation of tables and figures is necessary and how many examples the reader needs in order to understand the significance of your research findings.

Next, present a content analysis of another part of the spectrum of the same research question, perhaps the NEGATIVE or NEUTRAL responses to the survey. For instance:

  “As Figure 1 shows, 15 out of 60 patients in Group A responded negatively to Question 2.”

After you have assessed the data in one figure and explained it sufficiently, move on to your next research question. For example:

  “How does patient satisfaction correspond to in-hospital improvements made to postoperative care?”

This kind of data may be presented through a figure or set of figures (for instance, a paired T-test table).

Explain the data you present, here in a table, with a concise content analysis:

“The p-value for the comparison between the before and after groups of patients was .03% (Fig. 2), indicating that the greater the dissatisfaction among patients, the more frequent the improvements that were made to postoperative care.”

Let’s examine another example of a Results section from a study on plant tolerance to heavy metal stress . In the Introduction section, the aims of the study are presented as “determining the physiological and morphological responses of Allium cepa L. towards increased cadmium toxicity” and “evaluating its potential to accumulate the metal and its associated environmental consequences.” The Results section presents data showing how these aims are achieved in tables alongside a content analysis, beginning with an overview of the findings:

“Cadmium caused inhibition of root and leave elongation, with increasing effects at higher exposure doses (Fig. 1a-c).”

The figure containing this data is cited in parentheses. Note that this author has combined three graphs into one single figure. Separating the data into separate graphs focusing on specific aspects makes it easier for the reader to assess the findings, and consolidating this information into one figure saves space and makes it easy to locate the most relevant results.

Following this overall summary, the relevant data in the tables is broken down into greater detail in text form in the Results section.

• “Results on the bio-accumulation of cadmium were found to be the highest (17.5 mg kgG1) in the bulb, when the concentration of cadmium in the solution was 1×10G2 M and lowest (0.11 mg kgG1) in the leaves when the concentration was 1×10G3 M.”

Captioning and Referencing Tables and Figures

Tables and figures are central components of your Results section and you need to carefully think about the most effective way to use graphs and tables to present your findings . Therefore, it is crucial to know how to write strong figure captions and to refer to them within the text of the Results section.

The most important advice one can give here as well as throughout the paper is to check the requirements and standards of the journal to which you are submitting your work. Every journal has its own design and layout standards, which you can find in the author instructions on the target journal’s website. Perusing a journal’s published articles will also give you an idea of the proper number, size, and complexity of your figures.

Regardless of which format you use, the figures should be placed in the order they are referenced in the Results section and be as clear and easy to understand as possible. If there are multiple variables being considered (within one or more research questions), it can be a good idea to split these up into separate figures. Subsequently, these can be referenced and analyzed under separate headings and paragraphs in the text.

To create a caption, consider the research question being asked and change it into a phrase. For instance, if one question is “Which color did participants choose?”, the caption might be “Color choice by participant group.” Or in our last research paper example, where the question was “What is the concentration of cadmium in different parts of the onion after 14 days?” the caption reads:

 “Fig. 1(a-c): Mean concentration of Cd determined in (a) bulbs, (b) leaves, and (c) roots of onions after a 14-day period.”

Steps for Composing the Results Section

Because each study is unique, there is no one-size-fits-all approach when it comes to designing a strategy for structuring and writing the section of a research paper where findings are presented. The content and layout of this section will be determined by the specific area of research, the design of the study and its particular methodologies, and the guidelines of the target journal and its editors. However, the following steps can be used to compose the results of most scientific research studies and are essential for researchers who are new to preparing a manuscript for publication or who need a reminder of how to construct the Results section.

Step 1 : Consult the guidelines or instructions that the target journal or publisher provides authors and read research papers it has published, especially those with similar topics, methods, or results to your study.

• The guidelines will generally outline specific requirements for the results or findings section, and the published articles will provide sound examples of successful approaches.
• Note length limitations on restrictions on content. For instance, while many journals require the Results and Discussion sections to be separate, others do not—qualitative research papers often include results and interpretations in the same section (“Results and Discussion”).
• Reading the aims and scope in the journal’s “ guide for authors ” section and understanding the interests of its readers will be invaluable in preparing to write the Results section.

Step 2 : Consider your research results in relation to the journal’s requirements and catalogue your results.

• Focus on experimental results and other findings that are especially relevant to your research questions and objectives and include them even if they are unexpected or do not support your ideas and hypotheses.
• Catalogue your findings—use subheadings to streamline and clarify your report. This will help you avoid excessive and peripheral details as you write and also help your reader understand and remember your findings. Create appendices that might interest specialists but prove too long or distracting for other readers.
• Decide how you will structure of your results. You might match the order of the research questions and hypotheses to your results, or you could arrange them according to the order presented in the Methods section. A chronological order or even a hierarchy of importance or meaningful grouping of main themes or categories might prove effective. Consider your audience, evidence, and most importantly, the objectives of your research when choosing a structure for presenting your findings.

Step 3 : Design figures and tables to present and illustrate your data.

• Tables and figures should be numbered according to the order in which they are mentioned in the main text of the paper.
• Information in figures should be relatively self-explanatory (with the aid of captions), and their design should include all definitions and other information necessary for readers to understand the findings without reading all of the text.
• Use tables and figures as a focal point to tell a clear and informative story about your research and avoid repeating information. But remember that while figures clarify and enhance the text, they cannot replace it.

Step 4 : Draft your Results section using the findings and figures you have organized.

• The goal is to communicate this complex information as clearly and precisely as possible; precise and compact phrases and sentences are most effective.
• In the opening paragraph of this section, restate your research questions or aims to focus the reader’s attention to what the results are trying to show. It is also a good idea to summarize key findings at the end of this section to create a logical transition to the interpretation and discussion that follows.
• Try to write in the past tense and the active voice to relay the findings since the research has already been done and the agent is usually clear. This will ensure that your explanations are also clear and logical.
• Make sure that any specialized terminology or abbreviation you have used here has been defined and clarified in the  Introduction section .

Step 5 : Review your draft; edit and revise until it reports results exactly as you would like to have them reported to your readers.

• Double-check the accuracy and consistency of all the data, as well as all of the visual elements included.
• Read your draft aloud to catch language errors (grammar, spelling, and mechanics), awkward phrases, and missing transitions.
• Ensure that your results are presented in the best order to focus on objectives and prepare readers for interpretations, valuations, and recommendations in the Discussion section . Look back over the paper’s Introduction and background while anticipating the Discussion and Conclusion sections to ensure that the presentation of your results is consistent and effective.
• Consider seeking additional guidance on your paper. Find additional readers to look over your Results section and see if it can be improved in any way. Peers, professors, or qualified experts can provide valuable insights.

One excellent option is to use a professional English proofreading and editing service  such as Wordvice, including our paper editing service . With hundreds of qualified editors from dozens of scientific fields, Wordvice has helped thousands of authors revise their manuscripts and get accepted into their target journals. Read more about the  proofreading and editing process  before proceeding with getting academic editing services and manuscript editing services for your manuscript.

As the representation of your study’s data output, the Results section presents the core information in your research paper. By writing with clarity and conciseness and by highlighting and explaining the crucial findings of their study, authors increase the impact and effectiveness of their research manuscripts.

For more articles and videos on writing your research manuscript, visit Wordvice’s Resources page.

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• How to Write a Research Paper Introduction 
• Which Verb Tenses to Use in a Research Paper
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How to Write the Dissertation Findings or Results – Steps & Tips

Published by Grace Graffin at August 11th, 2021 , Revised On June 11, 2024

Each  part of the dissertation is unique, and some general and specific rules must be followed. The dissertation’s findings section presents the key results of your research without interpreting their meaning .

Theoretically, this is an exciting section of a dissertation because it involves writing what you have observed and found. However, it can be a little tricky if there is too much information to confuse the readers.

The goal is to include only the essential and relevant findings in this section. The results must be presented in an orderly sequence to provide clarity to the readers.

This section of the dissertation should be easy for the readers to follow, so you should avoid going into a lengthy debate over the interpretation of the results.

It is vitally important to focus only on clear and precise observations. The findings chapter of the  dissertation  is theoretically the easiest to write.

It includes  statistical analysis and a brief write-up about whether or not the results emerging from the analysis are significant. This segment should be written in the past sentence as you describe what you have done in the past.

This article will provide detailed information about  how to   write the findings of a dissertation .

When to Write Dissertation Findings Chapter

As soon as you have gathered and analysed your data, you can start to write up the findings chapter of your dissertation paper. Remember that it is your chance to report the most notable findings of your research work and relate them to the research hypothesis  or  research questions set out in  the introduction chapter of the dissertation .

You will be required to separately report your study’s findings before moving on to the discussion chapter  if your dissertation is based on the  collection of primary data  or experimental work.

However, you may not be required to have an independent findings chapter if your dissertation is purely descriptive and focuses on the analysis of case studies or interpretation of texts.

• Always report the findings of your research in the past tense.
• The dissertation findings chapter varies from one project to another, depending on the data collected and analyzed.
• Avoid reporting results that are not relevant to your research questions or research hypothesis.

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1. Reporting Quantitative Findings

The best way to present your quantitative findings is to structure them around the research  hypothesis or  questions you intend to address as part of your dissertation project.

Report the relevant findings for each research question or hypothesis, focusing on how you analyzed them.

Analysis of your findings will help you determine how they relate to the different research questions and whether they support the hypothesis you formulated.

While you must highlight meaningful relationships, variances, and tendencies, it is important not to guess their interpretations and implications because this is something to save for the discussion  and  conclusion  chapters.

Any findings not directly relevant to your research questions or explanations concerning the data collection process  should be added to the dissertation paper’s appendix section.

Use of Figures and Tables in Dissertation Findings

Suppose your dissertation is based on quantitative research. In that case, it is important to include charts, graphs, tables, and other visual elements to help your readers understand the emerging trends and relationships in your findings.

Repeating information will give the impression that you are short on ideas. Refer to all charts, illustrations, and tables in your writing but avoid recurrence.

The text should be used only to elaborate and summarize certain parts of your results. On the other hand, illustrations and tables are used to present multifaceted data.

It is recommended to give descriptive labels and captions to all illustrations used so the readers can figure out what each refers to.

How to Report Quantitative Findings

Here is an example of how to report quantitative results in your dissertation findings chapter;

Two hundred seventeen participants completed both the pretest and post-test and a Pairwise T-test was used for the analysis. The quantitative data analysis reveals a statistically significant difference between the mean scores of the pretest and posttest scales from the Teachers Discovering Computers course. The pretest mean was 29.00 with a standard deviation of 7.65, while the posttest mean was 26.50 with a standard deviation of 9.74 (Table 1). These results yield a significance level of .000, indicating a strong treatment effect (see Table 3). With the correlation between the scores being .448, the little relationship is seen between the pretest and posttest scores (Table 2). This leads the researcher to conclude that the impact of the course on the educators’ perception and integration of technology into the curriculum is dramatic.

Paired Samples

Paired Samples Correlation

Paired Samples Test

Also Read: How to Write the Abstract for the Dissertation.

2. Reporting Qualitative Findings

A notable issue with reporting qualitative findings is that not all results directly relate to your research questions or hypothesis.

The best way to present the results of qualitative research is to frame your findings around the most critical areas or themes you obtained after you examined the data.

In-depth data analysis will help you observe what the data shows for each theme. Any developments, relationships, patterns, and independent responses directly relevant to your research question or hypothesis should be mentioned to the readers.

Additional information not directly relevant to your research can be included in the appendix .

How to Report Qualitative Findings

Here is an example of how to report qualitative results in your dissertation findings chapter;

The last question of the interview focused on the need for improvement in Thai ready-to-eat products and the industry at large, emphasizing the need for enhancement in the current products being offered in the market. When asked if there was any particular need for Thai ready-to-eat meals to be improved and how to improve them in case of ‘yes,’ the males replied mainly by saying that the current products need improvement in terms of the use of healthier raw materials and preservatives or additives. There was an agreement amongst all males concerning the need to improve the industry for ready-to-eat meals and the use of more healthy items to prepare such meals. The females were also of the opinion that the fast-food items needed to be improved in the sense that more healthy raw materials such as vegetable oil and unsaturated fats, including whole-wheat products, to overcome risks associated with trans fat leading to obesity and hypertension should be used for the production of RTE products. The frozen RTE meals and packaged snacks included many preservatives and chemical-based flavouring enhancers that harmed human health and needed to be reduced. The industry is said to be aware of this fact and should try to produce RTE products that benefit the community in terms of healthy consumption.

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What to Avoid in Dissertation Findings Chapter

• Avoid using interpretive and subjective phrases and terms such as “confirms,” “reveals,” “suggests,” or “validates.” These terms are more suitable for the discussion chapter , where you will be expected to interpret the results in detail.
• Only briefly explain findings in relation to the key themes, hypothesis, and research questions. You don’t want to write a detailed subjective explanation for any research questions at this stage.

The Do’s of Writing the Findings or Results Section

• Ensure you are not presenting results from other research studies in your findings.
• Observe whether or not your hypothesis is tested or research questions answered.
• Illustrations and tables present data and are labelled to help your readers understand what they relate to.
• Use software such as Excel, STATA, and SPSS to analyse results and important trends.

Essential Guidelines on How to Write Dissertation Findings

The dissertation findings chapter should provide the context for understanding the results. The research problem should be repeated, and the research goals should be stated briefly.

This approach helps to gain the reader’s attention toward the research problem. The first step towards writing the findings is identifying which results will be presented in this section.

The results relevant to the questions must be presented, considering whether the results support the hypothesis. You do not need to include every result in the findings section. The next step is ensuring the data can be appropriately organized and accurate.

You will need to have a basic idea about writing the findings of a dissertation because this will provide you with the knowledge to arrange the data chronologically.

Start each paragraph by writing about the most important results and concluding the section with the most negligible actual results.

A short paragraph can conclude the findings section, summarising the findings so readers will remember as they transition to the next chapter. This is essential if findings are unexpected or unfamiliar or impact the study.

Our writers can help you with all parts of your dissertation, including statistical analysis of your results . To obtain free non-binding quotes, please complete our online quote form here .

Be Impartial in your Writing

When crafting your findings, knowing how you will organize the work is important. The findings are the story that needs to be told in response to the research questions that have been answered.

Therefore, the story needs to be organized to make sense to you and the reader. The findings must be compelling and responsive to be linked to the research questions being answered.

Always ensure that the size and direction of any changes, including percentage change, can be mentioned in the section. The details of p values or confidence intervals and limits should be included.

The findings sections only have the relevant parts of the primary evidence mentioned. Still, it is a good practice to include all the primary evidence in an appendix that can be referred to later.

The results should always be written neutrally without speculation or implication. The statement of the results mustn’t have any form of evaluation or interpretation.

Negative results should be added in the findings section because they validate the results and provide high neutrality levels.

The length of the dissertation findings chapter is an important question that must be addressed. It should be noted that the length of the section is directly related to the total word count of your dissertation paper.

The writer should use their discretion in deciding the length of the findings section or refer to the dissertation handbook or structure guidelines.

It should neither belong nor be short nor concise and comprehensive to highlight the reader’s main findings.

Ethically, you should be confident in the findings and provide counter-evidence. Anything that does not have sufficient evidence should be discarded. The findings should respond to the problem presented and provide a solution to those questions.

Structure of the Findings Chapter

The chapter should use appropriate words and phrases to present the results to the readers. Logical sentences should be used, while paragraphs should be linked to produce cohesive work.

You must ensure all the significant results have been added in the section. Recheck after completing the section to ensure no mistakes have been made.

The structure of the findings section is something you may have to be sure of primarily because it will provide the basis for your research work and ensure that the discussions section can be written clearly and proficiently.

One way to arrange the results is to provide a brief synopsis and then explain the essential findings. However, there should be no speculation or explanation of the results, as this will be done in the discussion section.

Another way to arrange the section is to present and explain a result. This can be done for all the results while the section is concluded with an overall synopsis.

This is the preferred method when you are writing more extended dissertations. It can be helpful when multiple results are equally significant. A brief conclusion should be written to link all the results and transition to the discussion section.

Numerous data analysis dissertation examples are available on the Internet, which will help you improve your understanding of writing the dissertation’s findings.

Problems to Avoid When Writing Dissertation Findings

One of the problems to avoid while writing the dissertation findings is reporting background information or explaining the findings. This should be done in the introduction section .

You can always revise the introduction chapter based on the data you have collected if that seems an appropriate thing to do.

Raw data or intermediate calculations should not be added in the findings section. Always ask your professor if raw data needs to be included.

If the data is to be included, then use an appendix or a set of appendices referred to in the text of the findings chapter.

Do not use vague or non-specific phrases in the findings section. It is important to be factual and concise for the reader’s benefit.

The findings section presents the crucial data collected during the research process. It should be presented concisely and clearly to the reader. There should be no interpretation, speculation, or analysis of the data.

The significant results should be categorized systematically with the text used with charts, figures, and tables. Furthermore, avoiding using vague and non-specific words in this section is essential.

It is essential to label the tables and visual material properly. You should also check and proofread the section to avoid mistakes.

The dissertation findings chapter is a critical part of your overall dissertation paper. If you struggle with presenting your results and statistical analysis, our expert dissertation writers can help you get things right. Whether you need help with the entire dissertation paper or individual chapters, our dissertation experts can provide customized dissertation support .

FAQs About Findings of a Dissertation

How do i report quantitative findings.

The best way to present your quantitative findings is to structure them around the research hypothesis or research questions you intended to address as part of your dissertation project. Report the relevant findings for each of the research questions or hypotheses, focusing on how you analyzed them.

How do I report qualitative findings?

The best way to present the qualitative research results is to frame your findings around the most important areas or themes that you obtained after examining the data.

An in-depth analysis of the data will help you observe what the data is showing for each theme. Any developments, relationships, patterns, and independent responses that are directly relevant to your research question or hypothesis should be clearly mentioned for the readers.

Can I use interpretive phrases like ‘it confirms’ in the finding chapter?

No, It is highly advisable to avoid using interpretive and subjective phrases in the finding chapter. These terms are more suitable for the discussion chapter , where you will be expected to provide your interpretation of the results in detail.

Can I report the results from other research papers in my findings chapter?

NO, you must not be presenting results from other research studies in your findings.

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This brief introductory section aims to deal with the definitions of two paradigms, positivism and post-positivism, as well as their importance in research.

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The purpose of the discussion section is to interpret and describe the significance of your findings in relation to what was already known about the research problem being investigated and to explain any new understanding or insights that emerged as a result of your research. The discussion will always connect to the introduction by way of the research questions or hypotheses you posed and the literature you reviewed, but the discussion does not simply repeat or rearrange the first parts of your paper; the discussion clearly explains how your study advanced the reader's understanding of the research problem from where you left them at the end of your review of prior research.

Annesley, Thomas M. “The Discussion Section: Your Closing Argument.” Clinical Chemistry 56 (November 2010): 1671-1674; Peacock, Matthew. “Communicative Moves in the Discussion Section of Research Articles.” System 30 (December 2002): 479-497.

Importance of a Good Discussion

The discussion section is often considered the most important part of your research paper because it:

• Most effectively demonstrates your ability as a researcher to think critically about an issue, to develop creative solutions to problems based upon a logical synthesis of the findings, and to formulate a deeper, more profound understanding of the research problem under investigation;
• Presents the underlying meaning of your research, notes possible implications in other areas of study, and explores possible improvements that can be made in order to further develop the concerns of your research;
• Highlights the importance of your study and how it can contribute to understanding the research problem within the field of study;
• Presents how the findings from your study revealed and helped fill gaps in the literature that had not been previously exposed or adequately described; and,
• Engages the reader in thinking critically about issues based on an evidence-based interpretation of findings; it is not governed strictly by objective reporting of information.

Annesley Thomas M. “The Discussion Section: Your Closing Argument.” Clinical Chemistry 56 (November 2010): 1671-1674; Bitchener, John and Helen Basturkmen. “Perceptions of the Difficulties of Postgraduate L2 Thesis Students Writing the Discussion Section.” Journal of English for Academic Purposes 5 (January 2006): 4-18; Kretchmer, Paul. Fourteen Steps to Writing an Effective Discussion Section. San Francisco Edit, 2003-2008.

Structure and Writing Style

I.  General Rules

These are the general rules you should adopt when composing your discussion of the results :

• Do not be verbose or repetitive; be concise and make your points clearly
• Avoid the use of jargon or undefined technical language
• Follow a logical stream of thought; in general, interpret and discuss the significance of your findings in the same sequence you described them in your results section [a notable exception is to begin by highlighting an unexpected result or a finding that can grab the reader's attention]
• Use the present verb tense, especially for established facts; however, refer to specific works or prior studies in the past tense
• If needed, use subheadings to help organize your discussion or to categorize your interpretations into themes

II.  The Content

The content of the discussion section of your paper most often includes :

• Explanation of results : Comment on whether or not the results were expected for each set of findings; go into greater depth to explain findings that were unexpected or especially profound. If appropriate, note any unusual or unanticipated patterns or trends that emerged from your results and explain their meaning in relation to the research problem.
• References to previous research : Either compare your results with the findings from other studies or use the studies to support a claim. This can include re-visiting key sources already cited in your literature review section, or, save them to cite later in the discussion section if they are more important to compare with your results instead of being a part of the general literature review of prior research used to provide context and background information. Note that you can make this decision to highlight specific studies after you have begun writing the discussion section.
• Deduction : A claim for how the results can be applied more generally. For example, describing lessons learned, proposing recommendations that can help improve a situation, or highlighting best practices.
• Hypothesis : A more general claim or possible conclusion arising from the results [which may be proved or disproved in subsequent research]. This can be framed as new research questions that emerged as a consequence of your analysis.

III.  Organization and Structure

Keep the following sequential points in mind as you organize and write the discussion section of your paper:

• Think of your discussion as an inverted pyramid. Organize the discussion from the general to the specific, linking your findings to the literature, then to theory, then to practice [if appropriate].
• Use the same key terms, narrative style, and verb tense [present] that you used when describing the research problem in your introduction.
• Begin by briefly re-stating the research problem you were investigating and answer all of the research questions underpinning the problem that you posed in the introduction.
• Describe the patterns, principles, and relationships shown by each major findings and place them in proper perspective. The sequence of this information is important; first state the answer, then the relevant results, then cite the work of others. If appropriate, refer the reader to a figure or table to help enhance the interpretation of the data [either within the text or as an appendix].
• Regardless of where it's mentioned, a good discussion section includes analysis of any unexpected findings. This part of the discussion should begin with a description of the unanticipated finding, followed by a brief interpretation as to why you believe it appeared and, if necessary, its possible significance in relation to the overall study. If more than one unexpected finding emerged during the study, describe each of them in the order they appeared as you gathered or analyzed the data. As noted, the exception to discussing findings in the same order you described them in the results section would be to begin by highlighting the implications of a particularly unexpected or significant finding that emerged from the study, followed by a discussion of the remaining findings.
• Before concluding the discussion, identify potential limitations and weaknesses if you do not plan to do so in the conclusion of the paper. Comment on their relative importance in relation to your overall interpretation of the results and, if necessary, note how they may affect the validity of your findings. Avoid using an apologetic tone; however, be honest and self-critical [e.g., in retrospect, had you included a particular question in a survey instrument, additional data could have been revealed].
• The discussion section should end with a concise summary of the principal implications of the findings regardless of their significance. Give a brief explanation about why you believe the findings and conclusions of your study are important and how they support broader knowledge or understanding of the research problem. This can be followed by any recommendations for further research. However, do not offer recommendations which could have been easily addressed within the study. This would demonstrate to the reader that you have inadequately examined and interpreted the data.

IV.  Overall Objectives

The objectives of your discussion section should include the following: I.  Reiterate the Research Problem/State the Major Findings

Briefly reiterate the research problem or problems you are investigating and the methods you used to investigate them, then move quickly to describe the major findings of the study. You should write a direct, declarative, and succinct proclamation of the study results, usually in one paragraph.

II.  Explain the Meaning of the Findings and Why They are Important

No one has thought as long and hard about your study as you have. Systematically explain the underlying meaning of your findings and state why you believe they are significant. After reading the discussion section, you want the reader to think critically about the results and why they are important. You don’t want to force the reader to go through the paper multiple times to figure out what it all means. If applicable, begin this part of the section by repeating what you consider to be your most significant or unanticipated finding first, then systematically review each finding. Otherwise, follow the general order you reported the findings presented in the results section.

III.  Relate the Findings to Similar Studies

No study in the social sciences is so novel or possesses such a restricted focus that it has absolutely no relation to previously published research. The discussion section should relate your results to those found in other studies, particularly if questions raised from prior studies served as the motivation for your research. This is important because comparing and contrasting the findings of other studies helps to support the overall importance of your results and it highlights how and in what ways your study differs from other research about the topic. Note that any significant or unanticipated finding is often because there was no prior research to indicate the finding could occur. If there is prior research to indicate this, you need to explain why it was significant or unanticipated. IV.  Consider Alternative Explanations of the Findings

It is important to remember that the purpose of research in the social sciences is to discover and not to prove . When writing the discussion section, you should carefully consider all possible explanations for the study results, rather than just those that fit your hypothesis or prior assumptions and biases. This is especially important when describing the discovery of significant or unanticipated findings.

V.  Acknowledge the Study’s Limitations

It is far better for you to identify and acknowledge your study’s limitations than to have them pointed out by your professor! Note any unanswered questions or issues your study could not address and describe the generalizability of your results to other situations. If a limitation is applicable to the method chosen to gather information, then describe in detail the problems you encountered and why. VI.  Make Suggestions for Further Research

You may choose to conclude the discussion section by making suggestions for further research [as opposed to offering suggestions in the conclusion of your paper]. Although your study can offer important insights about the research problem, this is where you can address other questions related to the problem that remain unanswered or highlight hidden issues that were revealed as a result of conducting your research. You should frame your suggestions by linking the need for further research to the limitations of your study [e.g., in future studies, the survey instrument should include more questions that ask..."] or linking to critical issues revealed from the data that were not considered initially in your research.

NOTE: Besides the literature review section, the preponderance of references to sources is usually found in the discussion section . A few historical references may be helpful for perspective, but most of the references should be relatively recent and included to aid in the interpretation of your results, to support the significance of a finding, and/or to place a finding within a particular context. If a study that you cited does not support your findings, don't ignore it--clearly explain why your research findings differ from theirs.

V.  Problems to Avoid

• Do not waste time restating your results . Should you need to remind the reader of a finding to be discussed, use "bridge sentences" that relate the result to the interpretation. An example would be: “In the case of determining available housing to single women with children in rural areas of Texas, the findings suggest that access to good schools is important...," then move on to further explaining this finding and its implications.
• As noted, recommendations for further research can be included in either the discussion or conclusion of your paper, but do not repeat your recommendations in the both sections. Think about the overall narrative flow of your paper to determine where best to locate this information. However, if your findings raise a lot of new questions or issues, consider including suggestions for further research in the discussion section.
• Do not introduce new results in the discussion section. Be wary of mistaking the reiteration of a specific finding for an interpretation because it may confuse the reader. The description of findings [results section] and the interpretation of their significance [discussion section] should be distinct parts of your paper. If you choose to combine the results section and the discussion section into a single narrative, you must be clear in how you report the information discovered and your own interpretation of each finding. This approach is not recommended if you lack experience writing college-level research papers.
• Use of the first person pronoun is generally acceptable. Using first person singular pronouns can help emphasize a point or illustrate a contrasting finding. However, keep in mind that too much use of the first person can actually distract the reader from the main points [i.e., I know you're telling me this--just tell me!].

Analyzing vs. Summarizing. Department of English Writing Guide. George Mason University; Discussion. The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper. Department of Biology. Bates College; Hess, Dean R. "How to Write an Effective Discussion." Respiratory Care 49 (October 2004); Kretchmer, Paul. Fourteen Steps to Writing to Writing an Effective Discussion Section. San Francisco Edit, 2003-2008; The Lab Report. University College Writing Centre. University of Toronto; Sauaia, A. et al. "The Anatomy of an Article: The Discussion Section: "How Does the Article I Read Today Change What I Will Recommend to my Patients Tomorrow?” The Journal of Trauma and Acute Care Surgery 74 (June 2013): 1599-1602; Research Limitations & Future Research . Lund Research Ltd., 2012; Summary: Using it Wisely. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Schafer, Mickey S. Writing the Discussion. Writing in Psychology course syllabus. University of Florida; Yellin, Linda L. A Sociology Writer's Guide . Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon, 2009.

Writing Tip

Don’t Over-Interpret the Results!

Interpretation is a subjective exercise. As such, you should always approach the selection and interpretation of your findings introspectively and to think critically about the possibility of judgmental biases unintentionally entering into discussions about the significance of your work. With this in mind, be careful that you do not read more into the findings than can be supported by the evidence you have gathered. Remember that the data are the data: nothing more, nothing less.

MacCoun, Robert J. "Biases in the Interpretation and Use of Research Results." Annual Review of Psychology 49 (February 1998): 259-287; Ward, Paulet al, editors. The Oxford Handbook of Expertise . Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2018.

Another Writing Tip

Don't Write Two Results Sections!

One of the most common mistakes that you can make when discussing the results of your study is to present a superficial interpretation of the findings that more or less re-states the results section of your paper. Obviously, you must refer to your results when discussing them, but focus on the interpretation of those results and their significance in relation to the research problem, not the data itself.

Azar, Beth. "Discussing Your Findings."  American Psychological Association gradPSYCH Magazine (January 2006).

Yet Another Writing Tip

Avoid Unwarranted Speculation!

The discussion section should remain focused on the findings of your study. For example, if the purpose of your research was to measure the impact of foreign aid on increasing access to education among disadvantaged children in Bangladesh, it would not be appropriate to speculate about how your findings might apply to populations in other countries without drawing from existing studies to support your claim or if analysis of other countries was not a part of your original research design. If you feel compelled to speculate, do so in the form of describing possible implications or explaining possible impacts. Be certain that you clearly identify your comments as speculation or as a suggestion for where further research is needed. Sometimes your professor will encourage you to expand your discussion of the results in this way, while others don’t care what your opinion is beyond your effort to interpret the data in relation to the research problem.

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Home » Research Report – Example, Writing Guide and Types

Research Report – Example, Writing Guide and Types

Table of Contents

Research Report

Definition:

Research Report is a written document that presents the results of a research project or study, including the research question, methodology, results, and conclusions, in a clear and objective manner.

The purpose of a research report is to communicate the findings of the research to the intended audience, which could be other researchers, stakeholders, or the general public.

Components of Research Report

Components of Research Report are as follows:

Introduction

The introduction sets the stage for the research report and provides a brief overview of the research question or problem being investigated. It should include a clear statement of the purpose of the study and its significance or relevance to the field of research. It may also provide background information or a literature review to help contextualize the research.

Literature Review

The literature review provides a critical analysis and synthesis of the existing research and scholarship relevant to the research question or problem. It should identify the gaps, inconsistencies, and contradictions in the literature and show how the current study addresses these issues. The literature review also establishes the theoretical framework or conceptual model that guides the research.

Methodology

The methodology section describes the research design, methods, and procedures used to collect and analyze data. It should include information on the sample or participants, data collection instruments, data collection procedures, and data analysis techniques. The methodology should be clear and detailed enough to allow other researchers to replicate the study.

The results section presents the findings of the study in a clear and objective manner. It should provide a detailed description of the data and statistics used to answer the research question or test the hypothesis. Tables, graphs, and figures may be included to help visualize the data and illustrate the key findings.

The discussion section interprets the results of the study and explains their significance or relevance to the research question or problem. It should also compare the current findings with those of previous studies and identify the implications for future research or practice. The discussion should be based on the results presented in the previous section and should avoid speculation or unfounded conclusions.

The conclusion summarizes the key findings of the study and restates the main argument or thesis presented in the introduction. It should also provide a brief overview of the contributions of the study to the field of research and the implications for practice or policy.

The references section lists all the sources cited in the research report, following a specific citation style, such as APA or MLA.

The appendices section includes any additional material, such as data tables, figures, or instruments used in the study, that could not be included in the main text due to space limitations.

Types of Research Report

Types of Research Report are as follows:

Thesis is a type of research report. A thesis is a long-form research document that presents the findings and conclusions of an original research study conducted by a student as part of a graduate or postgraduate program. It is typically written by a student pursuing a higher degree, such as a Master’s or Doctoral degree, although it can also be written by researchers or scholars in other fields.

Research Paper

Research paper is a type of research report. A research paper is a document that presents the results of a research study or investigation. Research papers can be written in a variety of fields, including science, social science, humanities, and business. They typically follow a standard format that includes an introduction, literature review, methodology, results, discussion, and conclusion sections.

Technical Report

A technical report is a detailed report that provides information about a specific technical or scientific problem or project. Technical reports are often used in engineering, science, and other technical fields to document research and development work.

Progress Report

A progress report provides an update on the progress of a research project or program over a specific period of time. Progress reports are typically used to communicate the status of a project to stakeholders, funders, or project managers.

Feasibility Report

A feasibility report assesses the feasibility of a proposed project or plan, providing an analysis of the potential risks, benefits, and costs associated with the project. Feasibility reports are often used in business, engineering, and other fields to determine the viability of a project before it is undertaken.

Field Report

A field report documents observations and findings from fieldwork, which is research conducted in the natural environment or setting. Field reports are often used in anthropology, ecology, and other social and natural sciences.

Experimental Report

An experimental report documents the results of a scientific experiment, including the hypothesis, methods, results, and conclusions. Experimental reports are often used in biology, chemistry, and other sciences to communicate the results of laboratory experiments.

Case Study Report

A case study report provides an in-depth analysis of a specific case or situation, often used in psychology, social work, and other fields to document and understand complex cases or phenomena.

Literature Review Report

A literature review report synthesizes and summarizes existing research on a specific topic, providing an overview of the current state of knowledge on the subject. Literature review reports are often used in social sciences, education, and other fields to identify gaps in the literature and guide future research.

Research Report Example

Following is a Research Report Example sample for Students:

Title: The Impact of Social Media on Academic Performance among High School Students

This study aims to investigate the relationship between social media use and academic performance among high school students. The study utilized a quantitative research design, which involved a survey questionnaire administered to a sample of 200 high school students. The findings indicate that there is a negative correlation between social media use and academic performance, suggesting that excessive social media use can lead to poor academic performance among high school students. The results of this study have important implications for educators, parents, and policymakers, as they highlight the need for strategies that can help students balance their social media use and academic responsibilities.

Introduction:

Social media has become an integral part of the lives of high school students. With the widespread use of social media platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, and Snapchat, students can connect with friends, share photos and videos, and engage in discussions on a range of topics. While social media offers many benefits, concerns have been raised about its impact on academic performance. Many studies have found a negative correlation between social media use and academic performance among high school students (Kirschner & Karpinski, 2010; Paul, Baker, & Cochran, 2012).

Given the growing importance of social media in the lives of high school students, it is important to investigate its impact on academic performance. This study aims to address this gap by examining the relationship between social media use and academic performance among high school students.

Methodology:

The study utilized a quantitative research design, which involved a survey questionnaire administered to a sample of 200 high school students. The questionnaire was developed based on previous studies and was designed to measure the frequency and duration of social media use, as well as academic performance.

The participants were selected using a convenience sampling technique, and the survey questionnaire was distributed in the classroom during regular school hours. The data collected were analyzed using descriptive statistics and correlation analysis.

The findings indicate that the majority of high school students use social media platforms on a daily basis, with Facebook being the most popular platform. The results also show a negative correlation between social media use and academic performance, suggesting that excessive social media use can lead to poor academic performance among high school students.

Discussion:

The results of this study have important implications for educators, parents, and policymakers. The negative correlation between social media use and academic performance suggests that strategies should be put in place to help students balance their social media use and academic responsibilities. For example, educators could incorporate social media into their teaching strategies to engage students and enhance learning. Parents could limit their children’s social media use and encourage them to prioritize their academic responsibilities. Policymakers could develop guidelines and policies to regulate social media use among high school students.

Conclusion:

In conclusion, this study provides evidence of the negative impact of social media on academic performance among high school students. The findings highlight the need for strategies that can help students balance their social media use and academic responsibilities. Further research is needed to explore the specific mechanisms by which social media use affects academic performance and to develop effective strategies for addressing this issue.

Limitations:

One limitation of this study is the use of convenience sampling, which limits the generalizability of the findings to other populations. Future studies should use random sampling techniques to increase the representativeness of the sample. Another limitation is the use of self-reported measures, which may be subject to social desirability bias. Future studies could use objective measures of social media use and academic performance, such as tracking software and school records.

Implications:

The findings of this study have important implications for educators, parents, and policymakers. Educators could incorporate social media into their teaching strategies to engage students and enhance learning. For example, teachers could use social media platforms to share relevant educational resources and facilitate online discussions. Parents could limit their children’s social media use and encourage them to prioritize their academic responsibilities. They could also engage in open communication with their children to understand their social media use and its impact on their academic performance. Policymakers could develop guidelines and policies to regulate social media use among high school students. For example, schools could implement social media policies that restrict access during class time and encourage responsible use.

References:

• Kirschner, P. A., & Karpinski, A. C. (2010). Facebook® and academic performance. Computers in Human Behavior, 26(6), 1237-1245.
• Paul, J. A., Baker, H. M., & Cochran, J. D. (2012). Effect of online social networking on student academic performance. Journal of the Research Center for Educational Technology, 8(1), 1-19.
• Pantic, I. (2014). Online social networking and mental health. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 17(10), 652-657.
• Rosen, L. D., Carrier, L. M., & Cheever, N. A. (2013). Facebook and texting made me do it: Media-induced task-switching while studying. Computers in Human Behavior, 29(3), 948-958.

Note*: Above mention, Example is just a sample for the students’ guide. Do not directly copy and paste as your College or University assignment. Kindly do some research and Write your own.

Applications of Research Report

Research reports have many applications, including:

• Communicating research findings: The primary application of a research report is to communicate the results of a study to other researchers, stakeholders, or the general public. The report serves as a way to share new knowledge, insights, and discoveries with others in the field.
• Informing policy and practice : Research reports can inform policy and practice by providing evidence-based recommendations for decision-makers. For example, a research report on the effectiveness of a new drug could inform regulatory agencies in their decision-making process.
• Supporting further research: Research reports can provide a foundation for further research in a particular area. Other researchers may use the findings and methodology of a report to develop new research questions or to build on existing research.
• Evaluating programs and interventions : Research reports can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of programs and interventions in achieving their intended outcomes. For example, a research report on a new educational program could provide evidence of its impact on student performance.
• Demonstrating impact : Research reports can be used to demonstrate the impact of research funding or to evaluate the success of research projects. By presenting the findings and outcomes of a study, research reports can show the value of research to funders and stakeholders.
• Enhancing professional development : Research reports can be used to enhance professional development by providing a source of information and learning for researchers and practitioners in a particular field. For example, a research report on a new teaching methodology could provide insights and ideas for educators to incorporate into their own practice.

How to write Research Report

Here are some steps you can follow to write a research report:

• Identify the research question: The first step in writing a research report is to identify your research question. This will help you focus your research and organize your findings.
• Conduct research : Once you have identified your research question, you will need to conduct research to gather relevant data and information. This can involve conducting experiments, reviewing literature, or analyzing data.
• Organize your findings: Once you have gathered all of your data, you will need to organize your findings in a way that is clear and understandable. This can involve creating tables, graphs, or charts to illustrate your results.
• Write the report: Once you have organized your findings, you can begin writing the report. Start with an introduction that provides background information and explains the purpose of your research. Next, provide a detailed description of your research methods and findings. Finally, summarize your results and draw conclusions based on your findings.
• Proofread and edit: After you have written your report, be sure to proofread and edit it carefully. Check for grammar and spelling errors, and make sure that your report is well-organized and easy to read.
• Include a reference list: Be sure to include a list of references that you used in your research. This will give credit to your sources and allow readers to further explore the topic if they choose.
• Format your report: Finally, format your report according to the guidelines provided by your instructor or organization. This may include formatting requirements for headings, margins, fonts, and spacing.

Purpose of Research Report

The purpose of a research report is to communicate the results of a research study to a specific audience, such as peers in the same field, stakeholders, or the general public. The report provides a detailed description of the research methods, findings, and conclusions.

Some common purposes of a research report include:

• Sharing knowledge: A research report allows researchers to share their findings and knowledge with others in their field. This helps to advance the field and improve the understanding of a particular topic.
• Identifying trends: A research report can identify trends and patterns in data, which can help guide future research and inform decision-making.
• Addressing problems: A research report can provide insights into problems or issues and suggest solutions or recommendations for addressing them.
• Evaluating programs or interventions : A research report can evaluate the effectiveness of programs or interventions, which can inform decision-making about whether to continue, modify, or discontinue them.
• Meeting regulatory requirements: In some fields, research reports are required to meet regulatory requirements, such as in the case of drug trials or environmental impact studies.

When to Write Research Report

A research report should be written after completing the research study. This includes collecting data, analyzing the results, and drawing conclusions based on the findings. Once the research is complete, the report should be written in a timely manner while the information is still fresh in the researcher’s mind.

In academic settings, research reports are often required as part of coursework or as part of a thesis or dissertation. In this case, the report should be written according to the guidelines provided by the instructor or institution.

In other settings, such as in industry or government, research reports may be required to inform decision-making or to comply with regulatory requirements. In these cases, the report should be written as soon as possible after the research is completed in order to inform decision-making in a timely manner.

Overall, the timing of when to write a research report depends on the purpose of the research, the expectations of the audience, and any regulatory requirements that need to be met. However, it is important to complete the report in a timely manner while the information is still fresh in the researcher’s mind.

Characteristics of Research Report

There are several characteristics of a research report that distinguish it from other types of writing. These characteristics include:

• Objective: A research report should be written in an objective and unbiased manner. It should present the facts and findings of the research study without any personal opinions or biases.
• Systematic: A research report should be written in a systematic manner. It should follow a clear and logical structure, and the information should be presented in a way that is easy to understand and follow.
• Detailed: A research report should be detailed and comprehensive. It should provide a thorough description of the research methods, results, and conclusions.
• Accurate : A research report should be accurate and based on sound research methods. The findings and conclusions should be supported by data and evidence.
• Organized: A research report should be well-organized. It should include headings and subheadings to help the reader navigate the report and understand the main points.
• Clear and concise: A research report should be written in clear and concise language. The information should be presented in a way that is easy to understand, and unnecessary jargon should be avoided.
• Citations and references: A research report should include citations and references to support the findings and conclusions. This helps to give credit to other researchers and to provide readers with the opportunity to further explore the topic.

Advantages of Research Report

Research reports have several advantages, including:

• Communicating research findings: Research reports allow researchers to communicate their findings to a wider audience, including other researchers, stakeholders, and the general public. This helps to disseminate knowledge and advance the understanding of a particular topic.
• Providing evidence for decision-making : Research reports can provide evidence to inform decision-making, such as in the case of policy-making, program planning, or product development. The findings and conclusions can help guide decisions and improve outcomes.
• Supporting further research: Research reports can provide a foundation for further research on a particular topic. Other researchers can build on the findings and conclusions of the report, which can lead to further discoveries and advancements in the field.
• Demonstrating expertise: Research reports can demonstrate the expertise of the researchers and their ability to conduct rigorous and high-quality research. This can be important for securing funding, promotions, and other professional opportunities.
• Meeting regulatory requirements: In some fields, research reports are required to meet regulatory requirements, such as in the case of drug trials or environmental impact studies. Producing a high-quality research report can help ensure compliance with these requirements.

Limitations of Research Report

Despite their advantages, research reports also have some limitations, including:

• Time-consuming: Conducting research and writing a report can be a time-consuming process, particularly for large-scale studies. This can limit the frequency and speed of producing research reports.
• Expensive: Conducting research and producing a report can be expensive, particularly for studies that require specialized equipment, personnel, or data. This can limit the scope and feasibility of some research studies.
• Limited generalizability: Research studies often focus on a specific population or context, which can limit the generalizability of the findings to other populations or contexts.
• Potential bias : Researchers may have biases or conflicts of interest that can influence the findings and conclusions of the research study. Additionally, participants may also have biases or may not be representative of the larger population, which can limit the validity and reliability of the findings.
• Accessibility: Research reports may be written in technical or academic language, which can limit their accessibility to a wider audience. Additionally, some research may be behind paywalls or require specialized access, which can limit the ability of others to read and use the findings.

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Writing a Research Paper Conclusion | Step-by-Step Guide

Published on October 30, 2022 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on April 13, 2023.

• Restate the problem statement addressed in the paper
• Summarize your overall arguments or findings
• Suggest the key takeaways from your paper

The content of the conclusion varies depending on whether your paper presents the results of original empirical research or constructs an argument through engagement with sources .

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Table of contents

Step 1: restate the problem, step 2: sum up the paper, step 3: discuss the implications, research paper conclusion examples, frequently asked questions about research paper conclusions.

The first task of your conclusion is to remind the reader of your research problem . You will have discussed this problem in depth throughout the body, but now the point is to zoom back out from the details to the bigger picture.

While you are restating a problem you’ve already introduced, you should avoid phrasing it identically to how it appeared in the introduction . Ideally, you’ll find a novel way to circle back to the problem from the more detailed ideas discussed in the body.

For example, an argumentative paper advocating new measures to reduce the environmental impact of agriculture might restate its problem as follows:

Meanwhile, an empirical paper studying the relationship of Instagram use with body image issues might present its problem like this:

“In conclusion …”

Avoid starting your conclusion with phrases like “In conclusion” or “To conclude,” as this can come across as too obvious and make your writing seem unsophisticated. The content and placement of your conclusion should make its function clear without the need for additional signposting.

Prevent plagiarism. Run a free check.

Having zoomed back in on the problem, it’s time to summarize how the body of the paper went about addressing it, and what conclusions this approach led to.

Depending on the nature of your research paper, this might mean restating your thesis and arguments, or summarizing your overall findings.

Argumentative paper: Restate your thesis and arguments

In an argumentative paper, you will have presented a thesis statement in your introduction, expressing the overall claim your paper argues for. In the conclusion, you should restate the thesis and show how it has been developed through the body of the paper.

Briefly summarize the key arguments made in the body, showing how each of them contributes to proving your thesis. You may also mention any counterarguments you addressed, emphasizing why your thesis holds up against them, particularly if your argument is a controversial one.

Don’t go into the details of your evidence or present new ideas; focus on outlining in broad strokes the argument you have made.

Empirical paper: Summarize your findings

In an empirical paper, this is the time to summarize your key findings. Don’t go into great detail here (you will have presented your in-depth results and discussion already), but do clearly express the answers to the research questions you investigated.

Describe your main findings, even if they weren’t necessarily the ones you expected or hoped for, and explain the overall conclusion they led you to.

Having summed up your key arguments or findings, the conclusion ends by considering the broader implications of your research. This means expressing the key takeaways, practical or theoretical, from your paper—often in the form of a call for action or suggestions for future research.

Argumentative paper: Strong closing statement

An argumentative paper generally ends with a strong closing statement. In the case of a practical argument, make a call for action: What actions do you think should be taken by the people or organizations concerned in response to your argument?

If your topic is more theoretical and unsuitable for a call for action, your closing statement should express the significance of your argument—for example, in proposing a new understanding of a topic or laying the groundwork for future research.

Empirical paper: Future research directions

In a more empirical paper, you can close by either making recommendations for practice (for example, in clinical or policy papers), or suggesting directions for future research.

Whatever the scope of your own research, there will always be room for further investigation of related topics, and you’ll often discover new questions and problems during the research process .

Finish your paper on a forward-looking note by suggesting how you or other researchers might build on this topic in the future and address any limitations of the current paper.

Full examples of research paper conclusions are shown in the tabs below: one for an argumentative paper, the other for an empirical paper.

• Argumentative paper
• Empirical paper

While the role of cattle in climate change is by now common knowledge, countries like the Netherlands continually fail to confront this issue with the urgency it deserves. The evidence is clear: To create a truly futureproof agricultural sector, Dutch farmers must be incentivized to transition from livestock farming to sustainable vegetable farming. As well as dramatically lowering emissions, plant-based agriculture, if approached in the right way, can produce more food with less land, providing opportunities for nature regeneration areas that will themselves contribute to climate targets. Although this approach would have economic ramifications, from a long-term perspective, it would represent a significant step towards a more sustainable and resilient national economy. Transitioning to sustainable vegetable farming will make the Netherlands greener and healthier, setting an example for other European governments. Farmers, policymakers, and consumers must focus on the future, not just on their own short-term interests, and work to implement this transition now.

As social media becomes increasingly central to young people’s everyday lives, it is important to understand how different platforms affect their developing self-conception. By testing the effect of daily Instagram use among teenage girls, this study established that highly visual social media does indeed have a significant effect on body image concerns, with a strong correlation between the amount of time spent on the platform and participants’ self-reported dissatisfaction with their appearance. However, the strength of this effect was moderated by pre-test self-esteem ratings: Participants with higher self-esteem were less likely to experience an increase in body image concerns after using Instagram. This suggests that, while Instagram does impact body image, it is also important to consider the wider social and psychological context in which this usage occurs: Teenagers who are already predisposed to self-esteem issues may be at greater risk of experiencing negative effects. Future research into Instagram and other highly visual social media should focus on establishing a clearer picture of how self-esteem and related constructs influence young people’s experiences of these platforms. Furthermore, while this experiment measured Instagram usage in terms of time spent on the platform, observational studies are required to gain more insight into different patterns of usage—to investigate, for instance, whether active posting is associated with different effects than passive consumption of social media content.

If you’re unsure about the conclusion, it can be helpful to ask a friend or fellow student to read your conclusion and summarize the main takeaways.

• Do they understand from your conclusion what your research was about?
• Are they able to summarize the implications of your findings?
• Can they answer your research question based on your conclusion?

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The conclusion of a research paper has several key elements you should make sure to include:

• A restatement of the research problem
• A summary of your key arguments and/or findings
• A short discussion of the implications of your research

No, it’s not appropriate to present new arguments or evidence in the conclusion . While you might be tempted to save a striking argument for last, research papers follow a more formal structure than this.

All your findings and arguments should be presented in the body of the text (more specifically in the results and discussion sections if you are following a scientific structure). The conclusion is meant to summarize and reflect on the evidence and arguments you have already presented, not introduce new ones.

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Organizing Academic Research Papers: 7. The Results

• Purpose of Guide
• Design Flaws to Avoid
• Glossary of Research Terms
• Narrowing a Topic Idea
• Broadening a Topic Idea
• Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
• Academic Writing Style
• Choosing a Title
• Making an Outline
• Paragraph Development
• Executive Summary
• Background Information
• The Research Problem/Question
• Theoretical Framework
• Citation Tracking
• Content Alert Services
• Evaluating Sources
• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• Tertiary Sources
• What Is Scholarly vs. Popular?
• Qualitative Methods
• Quantitative Methods
• Using Non-Textual Elements
• Limitations of the Study
• Common Grammar Mistakes
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Footnotes or Endnotes?
• Further Readings
• Annotated Bibliography
• Dealing with Nervousness
• Using Visual Aids
• Grading Someone Else's Paper
• How to Manage Group Projects
• Multiple Book Review Essay
• Reviewing Collected Essays
• About Informed Consent
• Writing Field Notes
• Writing a Policy Memo
• Writing a Research Proposal
• Acknowledgements

The results section of the research paper is where you report the findings of your study based upon the information gathered as a result of the methodology [or methodologies] you applied. The results section should simply state the findings, without bias or interpretation, and arranged in a logical sequence. The results section should always be written in the past tense. A section describing results [a.k.a., "findings"] is particularly necessary if your paper includes data generated from your own research.

Importance of a Good Results Section

When formulating the results section, it's important to remember that the results of a study do not prove anything . Research results can only confirm or reject the research problem underpinning your study. However, the act of articulating the results helps you to understand the problem from within, to break it into pieces, and to view the research problem from various perspectives.

The page length of this section is set by the amount and types of data to be reported . Be concise, using non-textual elements, such as figures and tables, if appropriate, to present results more effectively. In deciding what data to describe in your results section, you must clearly distinguish material that would normally be included in a research paper from any raw data or other material that could be included as an appendix. In general, raw data should not be included in the main text of your paper unless requested to do so by your professor.

Avoid providing data that is not critical to answering the research question . The background information you described in the introduction section should provide the reader with any additional context or explanation needed to understand the results. A good rule is to always re-read the background section of your paper after you have written up your results to ensure that the reader has enough context to understand the results [and, later, how you interpreted the results in the discussion section of your paper].

Bates College; Burton, Neil et al. Doing Your Education Research Project . Los Angeles, CA: SAGE, 2008; Results . The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper. Department of Biology. Bates College.

Structure and Writing Style

I. Structure and Approach

For most research paper formats, there are two ways of presenting and organizing the results .

• Present the results followed by a short explanation of the findings . For example, you may have noticed an unusual correlation between two variables during the analysis of your findings. It is correct to point this out in the results section. However, speculating as to why this correlation exists, and offering a hypothesis about what may be happening, belongs in the discussion section of your paper.
• Present a section and then discuss it, before presenting the next section then discussing it, and so on . This is more common in longer papers because it helps the reader to better understand each finding. In this model, it can be helpful to provide a brief conclusion in the results section that ties each of the findings together and links to the discussion.

NOTE: The discussion section should generally follow the same format chosen in presenting and organizing the results.

II.  Content

In general, the content of your results section should include the following elements:

• An introductory context for understanding the results by restating the research problem that underpins the purpose of your study.
• A summary of your key findings arranged in a logical sequence that generally follows your methodology section.
• Inclusion of non-textual elements, such as, figures, charts, photos, maps, tables, etc. to further illustrate the findings, if appropriate.
• In the text, a systematic description of your results, highlighting for the reader observations that are most relevant to the topic under investigation [remember that not all results that emerge from the methodology that you used to gather the data may be relevant].
• Use of the past tense when refering to your results.
• The page length of your results section is guided by the amount and types of data to be reported. However, focus only on findings that are important and related to addressing the research problem.

Using Non-textual Elements

• Either place figures, tables, charts, etc. within the text of the result, or include them in the back of the report--do one or the other but never do both.
• In the text, refer to each non-textual element in numbered order [e.g.,  Table 1, Table 2; Chart 1, Chart 2; Map 1, Map 2].
• If you place non-textual elements at the end of the report, make sure they are clearly distinguished from any attached appendix materials, such as raw data.
• Regardless of placement, each non-textual element must be numbered consecutively and complete with caption [caption goes under the figure, table, chart, etc.]
• Each non-textual element must be titled, numbered consecutively, and complete with a heading [title with description goes above the figure, table, chart, etc.].
• In proofreading your results section, be sure that each non-textual element is sufficiently complete so that it could stand on its own, separate from the text.

III. Problems to Avoid

When writing the results section, avoid doing the following :

• Discussing or interpreting your results . Save all this for the next section of your paper, although where appropriate, you should compare or contrast specific results to those found in other studies [e.g., "Similar to Smith [1990], one of the findings of this study is the strong correlation between motivation and academic achievement...."].
• Reporting background information or attempting to explain your findings ; this should have been done in your Introduction section, but don't panic! Often the results of a study point to the need to provide additional background information or to explain the topic further, so don't think you did something wrong. Revise your introduction as needed.
• Ignoring negative results . If some of your results fail to support your hypothesis, do not ignore them. Document them, then state in your discussion section why you believe a negative result emerged from your study. Note that negative results, and how you handle them, often provides you with the opportunity to write a more engaging discussion section, therefore, don't be afraid to highlight them.
• Including raw data or intermediate calculations . Ask your professor if you need to include any raw data generated by your study, such as transcripts from interviews or data files. If raw data is to be included, place it in an appendix or set of appendices that are referred to in the text.
• Be as factual and concise as possible in reporting your findings . Do not use phrases that are vague or non-specific, such as, "appeared to be greater or lesser than..." or "demonstrates promising trends that...."
• Presenting the same data or repeating the same information more than once . If you feel the need to highlight something, you will have a chance to do that in the discussion section.
• Confusing figures with tables . Be sure to properly label any non-textual elements in your paper. If you are not sure, look up the term in a dictionary.

Burton, Neil et al. Doing Your Education Research Project . Los Angeles, CA: SAGE, 2008;  Caprette, David R. Writing Research Papers . Experimental Biosciences Resources. Rice University; Hancock, Dawson R. and Bob Algozzine. Doing Case Study Research: A Practical Guide for Beginning Researchers . 2nd ed. New York: Teachers College Press, 2011; Introduction to Nursing Research: Reporting Research Findings. Nursing Research: Open Access Nursing Research and Review Articles. (January 4, 2012); Reporting Research Findings. Wilder Research, in partnership with the Minnesota Department of Human Services. (February 2009); Results . The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper. Department of Biology. Bates College; Schafer, Mickey S. Writing the Results . Thesis Writing in the Sciences. Course Syllabus. University of Florida.

Writing Tip

Why Don't I Just Combine the Results Section with the Discussion Section?

It's not unusual to find articles in social science journals where the author(s) have combined a description of the findings from the study with a discussion about their implications. You could do this. However, if you are inexperienced writing research papers, consider creating two sections for each element in your paper as a way to better organize your thoughts and, by extension, your  paper. Think of the results section as the place where you report what your study found; think of the discussion section as the place where you interpret your data and answer the "so what?" question. As you become more skilled writing research papers, you may want to meld the results of your study with a discussion of its implications.

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A Blood Test Accurately Diagnosed Alzheimer’s 90% of the Time, Study Finds

It was much more accurate than primary care doctors using cognitive tests and CT scans. The findings could speed the quest for an affordable and accessible way to diagnose patients with memory problems.

By Pam Belluck

Scientists have made another major stride toward the long-sought goal of diagnosing Alzheimer’s disease with a simple blood test . On Sunday, a team of researchers reported that a blood test was significantly more accurate than doctors’ interpretation of cognitive tests and CT scans in signaling the condition.

The study , published Sunday in the journal JAMA, found that about 90 percent of the time the blood test correctly identified whether patients with memory problems had Alzheimer’s. Dementia specialists using standard methods that did not include expensive PET scans or invasive spinal taps were accurate 73 percent of the time, while primary care doctors using those methods got it right only 61 percent of the time.

“Not too long ago measuring pathology in the brain of a living human was considered just impossible,” said Dr. Jason Karlawish, a co-director of the Penn Memory Center at the University of Pennsylvania who was not involved in the research. “This study adds to the revolution that has occurred in our ability to measure what’s going on in the brain of living humans.”

The results, presented Sunday at the Alzheimer’s Association International Conference in Philadelphia, are the latest milestone in the search for affordable and accessible ways to diagnose Alzheimer’s, a disease that afflicts nearly seven million Americans and over 32 million people worldwide. Medical experts say the findings bring the field closer to a day when people might receive routine blood tests for cognitive impairment as part of primary care checkups, similar to the way they receive cholesterol tests.

“Now, we screen people with mammograms and PSA or prostate exams and other things to look for very early signs of cancer,” said Dr. Adam Boxer, a neurologist at the University of California, San Francisco, who was not involved in the study. “And I think we’re going to be doing the same thing for Alzheimer’s disease and hopefully other forms of neurodegeneration.”

In recent years, several blood tests have been developed for Alzheimer’s. They are currently used mostly to screen participants in clinical trials and by some specialists like Dr. Boxer to help pinpoint if a patient’s dementia is caused by Alzheimer’s or another condition.

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The Impact of Unconditional Cash Transfers on Consumption and Household Balance Sheets: Experimental Evidence from Two US States

We provide new evidence on the causal effect of unearned income on consumption, balance sheets, and financial outcomes by exploiting an experiment that randomly assigned 1000 individuals to receive $1000 per month and 2000 individuals to receive $50 per month for three years. The transfer increased measured household expenditures by at least $300 per month. The spending impact is positive in most categories, and is largest for housing, food, and car expenses. The treatment increases housing unit and neighborhood mobility. We find noisily estimated modest positive effects on asset values, driven by financial assets, but these gains are offset by higher debt, resulting in a near-zero effect on net worth. The transfer increased self-reported financial health and credit scores but did not affect credit limits, delinquencies, utilization, bankruptcies, or foreclosures. Adjusting for underreporting, we estimate marginal propensities to consume non-durables between 0.44 and 0.55, durables and semi-durables between 0.21 and 0.26, and marginal propensities to de-lever of near zero. These results suggest that large temporary transfers increase short-term consumption and improve financial health but may not cause persistent improvements in the financial position of young, low-income households.

Many people contributed to the success of this project. The program we study and the associated research were supported by generous private funding sources, and we thank the non-profit organizations that implemented the program. We thank Jill Adona, Isaac Ahuvia, Oscar Alonso, Francisco Brady, Jack Bunge, Jake Cosgrove, Leo Dai, Kevin Didi, Rashad Dixon, Marc-Andrea Fiorina, Joshua Lin, Sabrina Liu, Anthony McCanny, Janna Mangasep, Oliver Scott Pankratz, Alok Ranjan, Mark Rick, Ethan Sansom, Sophia Scaglioni, and Angela Wang-Lin for outstanding research assistance. Tess Cotter, Karina Dotson, Aristia Kinis, Sam Manning, Alex Nawar, and Elizabeth Proehl were invaluable contributors through their work at OpenResearch. The management and staff of the Inclusive Economy Lab at the University of Chicago, including Carmelo Barbaro, Janelle Blackwood, Katie Buitrago, Melinda Croes, Crystal Godina, Kelly Hallberg, Kirsten Jacobson, Timi Koyejo, Misuzu Schexnider, Stephen Stapleton, and many others have provided important support throughout all stages of the project. We received valuable feedback on the study from the OpenResearch Advisory Board and seminar participants at the University of California-Berkeley and the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. This study was approved by the Advarra Institutional Review Board (IRB) and is pre-registered at the American Economic Association RCT registry with a registration ID of AEARCTR-0006750. This research was supported in part by a J-PAL grant titled "The Impact of Unconditional Cash Transfers on Consumption: Evidence from the United States." The views expressed herein are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Bureau of Economic Research.

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Research Roundup August 2024: Recently Published Findings From AFSP-Funded Studies

August 1, 2024 – 5 min read

The Research Roundup is a regular update of recently published findings in suicide prevention research. AFSP-funded studies included in this roundup examined how…

• Digital safety plans can be an effective tool for people with suicidal thoughts and behaviors
• Substance use and depression often contribute to risk for suicide in suicide loss survivors
• Machine learning algorithms from health care data can help detect children at risk for suicidal thoughts and behaviors, and
• Genetic predisposition to bipolar disorder and schizophrenia may be associated with risk for suicide attempt

Researcher : Phillipe Courtet, MD, PhD, Enrique Baca-Garcia, MD, PhD Institution: Université de Montpellier (France), Fundación Jimenez Diaz (Spain) Grant Type: 2017 Linked Standard Research Grant – $299,394 Grant Title: Sleep and Appetite as Risk Markers for Suicidality in a Cross-National Cohort of Suicidal Patients

A safety plan is a suicide prevention tool for helping someone navigate suicidal feelings and urges. Clinicians work with their clients to personalize the plan and provide detailed strategies to manage a crisis. Prior research has shown that safety plans help reduce the risk of suicide. Typically, safety plans are completed in paper format, but recent studies have shown that digitizing the tool in the form of an app may be a promising way of enhancing its availability and customization.

To test this, Drs. Phillipe Courtet and Enrique Baca-Garcia recruited 105 individuals with suicidal thoughts and behaviors and installed a digital safety plan, SmartCrisis 2.0, on their smartphones. Participants rated the app's usefulness at 7.4 out of 10, its ease of use at 8.9, and their likelihood of recommending it at 8.6. Overall satisfaction with the app was 9.6. The most frequently used feature of the app was identifying "warning signs" of a crisis, particularly feelings of sadness or loneliness. The next most used feature was "internal coping strategies," with exercise being the most common. These results show high participation and satisfaction rates, suggesting that this app-based safety plan is a feasible and well-received intervention, supporting its potential implementation in clinical practice.

Citation : Porras-Segovia, A., De Granda-Beltrán, A. M., Gallardo, C., Abascal-Peiró, S., Barrigón, M. L., Artés-Rodríguez, A., López-Castroman, J., Courtet, P., & Baca-García, E. (2024). Smartphone-based safety plan for suicidal crisis: The SmartCrisis 2.0 pilot study. Journal of psychiatric research, 169, 284–291. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2023.11.039

Researcher : Alexandra Pitman, PhD Institution: University College London Grant Type: 2018 Standard Research Grant – $99,819 Grant Title: Understanding the Mediators of Suicide and Suicide Attempt Risk after Suicide Bereavement in the Danish Population

Research has demonstrated a consistent association between losing a partner to suicide and subsequent risk of suicide. However, there isn’t sufficient understanding of the mechanisms that may underlie this elevated risk. Two factors that researchers suspect may be at play are depression and substance use, as both have been shown to be prevalent after a suicide loss. It is important to understand these factors further to inform how to emotionally support individuals bereaved by suicide.

Using data from Denmark spanning 1980 to 2016, Dr. Alexandra Pitman compared 22,668 people who experienced a partner's suicide with 913,402 people whose partners died from other causes. She found that for both groups, suicide rates were very low (0.8% suicide bereaved vs. 0.4% bereaved by other causes). With regard to the role of depression, rates were similarly low, but higher among those bereaved by suicide (4.1%) compared with those bereaved by other causes (2.9%). While it appeared as if there were differences with regard to substance use, the difference between groups was not found when depression was taken into account. The findings emphasize the importance of preventing and treating depression in suicide-bereaved individuals to mitigate potential suicide risk. More research is needed to identify other contributing factors.

Citation : Pitman, A., McDonald, K., Logeswaran, Y., Lewis, G., Cerel, J., Lewis, G., & Erlangsen, A. (2024). The role of depression and use of alcohol and other drugs after partner suicide in the association between suicide bereavement and suicide: cohort study in the Danish population. Psychological medicine, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291724000448

Researcher : Juliet Edgcomb, MD, PhD Institution: University of California, Los Angeles Grant Type: 2020 Pilot Research Grant – $30,000 Grant Title: Electronic Health Record Phenotyping for Cohort Discovery of New-onset Suicidality in Youth

Emergency rooms are often the first point of access to mental health care for children at risk for self-injurious thoughts and behaviors (SITB) yet there is still much to learn about the best way to use health care data to identify suicide-related emergencies in kids. One approach that has shown promise is using AI-based machine learning algorithms to analyze codified health care data to identify patterns and detect when children may have been experiencing SITB.

To explore the potential for machine learning-based approaches, Dr. Juliet Edgcomb compared the effectiveness of using current medical codes and patients’ chief (i.e., initial) complaint against machine learning algorithms developed to detect SITB among children aged 10 to 17. Doctors reviewed and classified 600 children who visited the emergency room for mental health concerns and machine learning models were trained using health record data in addition to current medical codes. Machine learning models significantly improved detection accuracy with nearly half (47.3%) of the visits involving self-harming thoughts and behaviors. Clinician classification missed a significant number of cases: 29% with only medical codes and over 54% with only chief complaints. Dr. Edgcomb also found that sensitivity (i.e., ability to detect) was lower for boys and preteens compared to girls and teenagers. These findings suggests that chief complaints and diagnoses are not enough on their own to determine the presence of SITB, and that machine learning is a tool that could enhance the detection of SITB in children.

Citation : Edgcomb, J. B., Tseng, C. H., Pan, M., Klomhaus, A., & Zima, B. T. (2023). Assessing Detection of Children With Suicide-Related Emergencies: Evaluation and Development of Computable Phenotyping Approaches. JMIR mental health, 10, e47084. https://doi.org/10.2196/47084

Researcher : Brenda Cabrera-Mendoza, MD, PhD Institution: Yale University School of Medicine   Grant Type: 2022 Postdoctoral Fellowship – $132,900 Grant Title: Suicide-associated Loci Regulating Molecular Traits and Their Interaction With Environmental Factors

Research has shown that bipolar disorder (BD) and schizophrenia (SZ) are associated with higher risk for suicide attempt. Identifying factors contributing to the risk for suicide attempt in people with BD and SZ is crucial for developing effective prevention and treatment strategies. One way suicide prevention researchers are able to study this is by using a Mendelian randomization approach, which is a method used in epidemiology and genetics that combines genetic data with other factors (e.g., behavioral traits or sociodemographic factors) to identify potential cause-and-effect relationships.

Using this Mendelian randomization approach on a large-scale genetic database from the Psychiatric Genomics Consortium and the UK Biobank, Dr. Brenda Cabrera-Mendoza considered the influence of behavioral traits and socioeconomic factors. After analyzing the data, she found that genetic predispositions to BD and SZ significantly increased the risk of suicide attempts. Additionally, mental distress and risk-taking behaviors were found to independently contribute to suicide attempts, regardless of SZ genetics, while these same factors did partly explain the increased suicide risk in BD. The findings highlight the complex interplay between genetic risks and behavioral traits, underscoring the importance of comprehensive mental health assessments for individuals at high risk of suicide.

Citation : Cabrera-Mendoza, B., Aydin, N., Fries, G. R., Docherty, A. R., Walss-Bass, C., & Polimanti, R. (2023). Estimating the direct effects of the genetic liabilities to bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, and behavioral traits on suicide attempt using a multivariable Mendelian randomization approach. medRxiv: 2023.08.14.23294083. https://doi.org/10.1101/2023.08.14.23294083

Learn more about the AFSP research grants featured in this monthly roundup, as well as others, here .

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• Introduction
• Conclusions
• Article Information

For primary and secondary outcomes, percent change and P values are presented. A Wald test was used to evaluate a significant difference in diet at 8 weeks from baseline (interaction term). Error bars indicate IQRs. HDL-C indicates high-density lipoprotein cholesterol; LDL-C, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol; and TMAO, trimethylamine N -oxide.

Trial Protocol

eMethods. Supplementary Methods

eResults. Supplementary Results

eAppendix. Plant-Based Dietary Intervention Reporting Checklist

eFigure 1. TwiNS Study Design

eTable 1. Twin Lifestyle Behaviors, n = 42 (21 Pairs of Twins)

eFigure 2. Macronutrient Distribution by Phase and Diet

eTable 2. Macronutrient Distribution by Phase and Diet

eFigure 3. Fat Distribution by Phase and Diet

eTable 3. Fat Distribution by Phase and Diet

eFigure 4. Grain Distribution by Phase and Diet

eTable 4. Grain Distribution by Phase and Diet

eFigure 5. Protein Distribution by Phase and Diet

eTable 5. Protein Distribution by Phase and Diet

eFigure 6. Carbohydrate Distribution by Phase and Diet

eTable 6. Carbohydrate Distribution by Phase and Diet

eFigure 7. Dietary Cholesterol Distribution by Phase and Diet

eTable 7. Dietary Cholesterol Distribution by Phase and Diet

eFigure 8. Dietary Vitamin B12 Distribution by Phase and Diet

eTable 8. Dietary Vitamin B12 Distribution by Phase and Diet

eFigure 9. Dietary Iron Distribution by Phase and Diet

eTable 9. Dietary Iron Distribution by Phase and Diet

eFigure 10. Vegetable Servings Distribution by Phase and Diet

eTable 10. Vegetable Servings Distribution by Phase and Diet

eFigure 11. Animal-Based Protein Distribution by Phase and Diet

eTable 11. Animal-Based Protein Distribution by Phase and Diet

eFigure 12. Meat Alternatives Distribution by Phase and Diet

eTable 12. Meat Alternatives Distribution by Phase and Diet

eTable 13. Diet Satisfaction (D-Sat28) of Participants by Diet Assignment and Phase

eTable 14. Self-Efficacy to Plan, Shop, Cook, and Choose Meals by Diet Assignment and Phase

eTable 15. Diet Preferences of Participants by Diet Assignment

eTable 16. Perceptions of Delivered, Pre-Prepared Meals by Diet Assignment

eTable 17. Barriers to Adherence to Study Eating Patterns by Diet Assignment

eTable 18. Factors that Improve Dietary Adherence and Sustainability by Diet Assignment

eTable 19. Average Self-Rated Dietary Adherence by Diet Assignment and Phase

eTable 20. Cardiovascular Health Outcomes at the End of 4 Weeks and Main Effect Model Estimates, Standard Errors, and 95% Confidence Interval for Primary and Secondary Outcome Analysis

eFigure 13. Sensitivity Analysis of the Change in Trimethylamine N-Oxide (TMAO) With Three Outliers Removed, (Mean ± SE)

eTable 21. Paired T-Tests of Cardiovascular Health Outcomes at the End of 8 Weeks

eTable 22. Unpaired T-Tests of Cardiovascular Health Outcomes at the End of 8 Weeks

eTable 23. Average Macronutrient and Micronutrient Composition of Trifecta Food Delivery Meals by Meal Type and Diet Assignment

eReferences

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• Error in Results Section JAMA Network Open Correction December 26, 2023

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Landry MJ , Ward CP , Cunanan KM, et al. Cardiometabolic Effects of Omnivorous vs Vegan Diets in Identical Twins : A Randomized Clinical Trial . JAMA Netw Open. 2023;6(11):e2344457. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2023.44457

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Cardiometabolic Effects of Omnivorous vs Vegan Diets in Identical Twins : A Randomized Clinical Trial

• 1 Stanford Prevention Research Center, Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, Stanford University, Palo Alto, California
• 2 Department of Population Health and Disease Prevention, Program in Public Health, University of California, Irvine
• 3 Quantitative Sciences Unit, Department of Medicine, Stanford University, Palo Alto, California
• 4 Department of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford University, Palo Alto, California
• 5 Chan Zuckerberg Biohub, San Francisco, California
• 6 Center for Human Microbiome Studies, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California
• Correction Error in Results Section JAMA Network Open

Question   What are the cardiometabolic effects of a healthy plant-based (vegan) vs a healthy omnivorous diet among identical twins during an 8-week intervention?

Findings   In this randomized clinical trial of 22 healthy, adult, identical twin pairs, those consuming a healthy vegan diet showed significantly improved low-density lipoprotein cholesterol concentration, fasting insulin level, and weight loss compared with twins consuming a healthy omnivorous diet.

Meaning   The findings from this trial suggest that a healthy plant-based diet offers a significant protective cardiometabolic advantage compared with a healthy omnivorous diet.

Importance   Increasing evidence suggests that, compared with an omnivorous diet, a vegan diet confers potential cardiovascular benefits from improved diet quality (ie, higher consumption of vegetables, legumes, fruits, whole grains, nuts, and seeds).

Objective   To compare the effects of a healthy vegan vs healthy omnivorous diet on cardiometabolic measures during an 8-week intervention.

Design, Setting, and Participants   This single-center, population-based randomized clinical trial of 22 pairs of twins (N = 44) randomized participants to a vegan or omnivorous diet (1 twin per diet). Participant enrollment began March 28, 2022, and continued through May 5, 2022. The date of final follow-up data collection was July 20, 2022. This 8-week, open-label, parallel, dietary randomized clinical trial compared the health impact of a vegan diet vs an omnivorous diet in identical twins. Primary analysis included all available data.

Intervention   Twin pairs were randomized to follow a healthy vegan diet or a healthy omnivorous diet for 8 weeks. Diet-specific meals were provided via a meal delivery service from baseline through week 4, and from weeks 5 to 8 participants prepared their own diet-appropriate meals and snacks.

Main Outcomes and Measures   The primary outcome was difference in low-density lipoprotein cholesterol concentration from baseline to end point (week 8). Secondary outcome measures were changes in cardiometabolic factors (plasma lipids, glucose, and insulin levels and serum trimethylamine N -oxide level), plasma vitamin B 12 level, and body weight. Exploratory measures were adherence to study diets, ease or difficulty in following the diets, participant energy levels, and sense of well-being.

Results   A total of 22 pairs (N = 44) of twins (34 [77.3%] female; mean [SD] age, 39.6 [12.7] years; mean [SD] body mass index, 25.9 [4.7]) were enrolled in the study. After 8 weeks, compared with twins randomized to an omnivorous diet, the twins randomized to the vegan diet experienced significant mean (SD) decreases in low-density lipoprotein cholesterol concentration (−13.9 [5.8] mg/dL; 95% CI, −25.3 to −2.4 mg/dL), fasting insulin level (−2.9 [1.3] μIU/mL; 95% CI, −5.3 to −0.4 μIU/mL), and body weight (−1.9 [0.7] kg; 95% CI, −3.3 to −0.6 kg).

Conclusions and Relevance   In this randomized clinical trial of the cardiometabolic effects of omnivorous vs vegan diets in identical twins, the healthy vegan diet led to improved cardiometabolic outcomes compared with a healthy omnivorous diet. Clinicians can consider this dietary approach as a healthy alternative for their patients.

Trial Registration   ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT05297825

Plant-based diets have gained recent popularity not only for their lower environmental impact compared with an omnivorous dietary pattern but also for their health benefits. 1 , 2 The most significant global health crises affecting our generation are noncommunicable diseases and climate change, which are both inextricably linked to diet, 3 and dietary patterns high in plants and low in animal foods can maximize health and environmental benefits. 4 , 5 Plant-based diets contain a diverse family of dietary patterns, which encourage a reduced consumption of animal foods. 6 Abundant evidence from observational and intervention studies 7 - 13 indicates that vegan diets are associated with improved cardiovascular health and decreased risk of cardiovascular disease, likely because of the higher daily consumption of vegetables and fruits, legumes, whole grains and nuts, and seeds compared with other different types of dietary patterns. 14

A vegan dietary pattern is typically lower in energy density but higher in fiber, vitamins, minerals, and phytonutrients compared with other dietary patterns. 15 However, sometimes a vegan dietary pattern can limit specific nutrients, such as vitamin B 12 , iron, and calcium. 15 , 16 Most studies 17 , 18 examining vegan diets have been epidemiologic examinations, with a few reported clinical studies. 19 , 20 A confounding factor to consider in epidemiologic studies is the bias of self-decided vegans who may differ from nonvegans in factors that may influence diet and health. 21 In addition, a poorly formulated vegan diet can include low-quality plant foods, such as refined carbohydrates and added sugars. 22 To address these concerns, we designed a trial to compare the cardiometabolic effects of a healthy vegan diet with a healthy omnivorous diet, exposing both groups to vegetables, legumes, fruits, whole grains, nuts, and seeds. To control for genetic differences that might alter the cardiometabolic effects of diet, 23 we randomly assigned identical twins to follow the 2 diets for 8 weeks.

This study followed the ethical standards of the Declaration of Helsinki 24 and was approved by the Stanford University Human Subjects Committee on March 9, 2022. All study participants provided written informed consent. The trial protocol is given in Supplement 1 . Additional methods are available in the eMethods in Supplement 2 . This report follows the 25-item Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials ( CONSORT ) reporting guideline of design, participants, interventions, outcomes, sample size, randomization, participant flow, baseline data, outcomes, ancillary analyses, limitations, and interpretation. Race and ethnicity data were collected via self-report and included to characterize the population for generalizability of findings.

This single-site, parallel-group, dietary intervention randomized clinical trial randomized healthy, adult identical twins to a healthy vegan or omnivorous diet for 8 weeks. Participant enrollment began March 28, 2022, and continued through May 5, 2022. The date of final follow-up data collection was July 20, 2022.

The primary outcome was the difference from baseline to 8 weeks in low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) levels between the diet groups. Secondary outcomes included differences from baseline to 8 weeks in body weight and levels of fasting triglycerides, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, glucose, insulin, trimethylamine N -oxide (TMAO), and vitamin B 12 . Exploratory assessments included diet quality, adherence, and qualitative factors to help interpret the study’s findings (eFigure 1 in Supplement 2 ).

We aimed to recruit 22 pairs of identical twins 18 years or older, a sample size determined by resource availability rather than a formal power calculation. Identical twins were recruited primarily from the Stanford Twin Registry and randomized using computerized random-number generation by a statistician (K.M.C.) blinded to the intervention, delivery, or data collection. Adult twins 18 years or older willing to consume a plant-based (vegan) or omnivore diet for 8 weeks were included. We excluded participants who weighed 45.36 kg (100 lb) or less, had a body mass index (calculated as weight in kilograms divided by height in meters squared) of 40 or higher, had an LDL-C level of 190 mg/dL or higher (to convert to millimoles per liter, multiply by 0.0259), had a systolic blood pressure of 160 mm Hg or higher or diastolic blood pressure of 90 mm Hg or higher, or were pregnant. Individuals self-reported race and ethnicity for the purpose of demographic reporting. Inclusion and exclusion criteria have been previously published. 25

The study consisted of two 4-week phases: delivered meals and self-provided meals. Participants were provided all no-cost meals for the first 4 study weeks by a nationwide meal delivery company (Trifecta Nutrition). It was expected that after 4 weeks of food delivery and health educator counseling that participants would understand the amounts and types of foods they should purchase and prepare to achieve maximum adherence to the diets when self-providing meals.

Research staff worked with Trifecta Nutrition to develop menu offerings to match a healthy vegan and omnivorous diet, which emphasized vegetables, fruits, and whole grains while limiting added sugars and refined grains. During the initial 4 weeks, meals were delivered once each week, with 7 days of breakfast, lunch, and dinner meals. Participants also purchased and consumed snacks to meet their energy requirements following guidance from health educators.

Guiding principles were reinforced: (1) choose minimally processed foods; (2) build a balanced plate with vegetables, starch, protein, and healthy fats; (3) choose variety within each food group; and (4) individualize these guidelines to meet preferences and needs (eAppendix in Supplement 2 ). Although weight loss was not discouraged, our diet design did not include a prescribed energy restriction and was not intended to be a weight loss study. Participants were told to eat until they were satiated throughout the study.

Two types of dietary data were collected. For the primary reporting data, 3 unannounced 24-hour dietary recalls—a structured interview intended to capture detailed information about food and drink intakes—were administered within a 1-week window (2 weekdays and 1 weekend day) of each time point (baseline, week 4, and week 8). Data were collected via telephone by a registered dietitian (L.R.D.) using Nutrition Data System for Research (Nutrition Coordinating Center). For the secondary reporting data, participants were encouraged to log their food intake using the Cronometer app (Cronometer Pro, Nutrition Tracking Software for Professionals; Cronometer); these data were used by health educators for real-time guidance of participants.

At 3 time points, participants visited the Stanford Clinical and Translational Research Unit after an overnight fast of 10 to 12 hours: baseline, 4 weeks (phase 1), and 8 weeks (phase 2). Blood draw and clinical measures were assessed using standard methods (eMethods in Supplement 2 ). Stool samples were collected for future analysis to examine changes to the gut microbiome (eg, microbial diversity), metabolites, inflammatory markers, and additional health factors.

Descriptive statistics, mean (SD) or number (percentage), were used for continuous and categorical variables, respectively. Table 1 presents baseline summary statistics by study group. For the primary analysis, we investigated differences between groups in the change from baseline to week 8 for LDL-C between vegan and omnivorous diets among identical twins. Primary analysis included all available data. A linear mixed model was used and included fixed effects for diet and time (baseline as reference) and an interaction effect for diet × time and a random effect for twin pair to account for the correlation between identical twins (ie, random intercept allowed intercept to vary for each twin pair). A Wald test was used to evaluate a significant difference in diet at 8 weeks from baseline (interaction term). Finally, we present model estimates (95% CIs) for diet at 8 weeks. For each secondary outcome, we evaluated a statistical model similar to the primary model as described herein.

Analyses were completed using R Studio, version 2022.12.0 (Posit Software). A 2-sided P  ≤ .05 was considered to be statistically significant. No correction was applied for multiple comparisons, and secondary and exploratory analyses should be interpreted accordingly.

A total of 22 pairs of randomized twins (N = 44) were enrolled in the study. The CONSORT flow diagram of participants ( Figure 1 ) shows 22 twin pairs randomized to receive either a vegan or omnivorous diet (1 twin per diet); 21 pairs in both groups contributed to the final analyses. Baseline characteristics ( Table 1 ) included the following: mean (SD) age, 39.6 (12.7) years; 34 (77.3%) female and 10 (22.7%) male; 5 (11.4%) Asian, 2 (4.5%) Black/African American, 1 (2.3%) Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander, 32 (72.7%) White, 4 (9.1%) multiracial, and mean (SD) body mass index, 26.9 (4.9). Most twins (33 of 42 [78.6%]) currently lived with their twin, and most reported being similar to their twin (29 of 42 [69.0%]) ( Table 2 ; eTable 1 in Supplement 2 ).

Reported energy intake during each of the two 4-week phases (food delivery and self-provided) were lower compared with baseline for both groups (eFigures 1 to 5 and eTables 2 to 6 and 23 in Supplement 2 ). Intake of vegetables, animal-based protein sources, and plant-based protein sources by diet group and per intervention phase are provided in eFigures 6 to 12 and eTables 10 to 12 in Supplement 2 . Additional results are available in the eResults, eTables 7 to 9, and eFigures 7 to 9 in Supplement 2 .

Participants receiving the vegan diet showed a mean (SD) decrease of 13.9 (5.8) mg/dL (95% CI, −25.3 to −2.4 mg/dL) in the unadjusted mean LDL-C level at 8 weeks from baseline compared with participants receiving the omnivorous diet ( Table 2 ). As early as 4 weeks, we observed a significant decrease in mean LDL-C level among vegans compared with omnivores (eTable 20 in Supplement 2 ). The percentage of change from baseline to 8 weeks in primary and secondary outcomes between vegan and omnivorous diet groups ( Figure 2 ) showed a significant decrease in LDL-C level among the vegan compared with the omnivore group ( Table 2 ). Participants’ mean (SD) baseline LDL-C level was 114 (33.5) mg/dL, 26 leaving minimal room for participants to improve through diet alone.

Compared with participants receiving the omnivorous diet, participants receiving the vegan diet saw a significant mean (SD) decrease of 2.9 (1.3) μIU/mL in fasting insulin (95% CI, −5.3 to −0.4 μIU/mL) from baseline to 8 weeks ( P  = .03) (to convert to picomoles per liter, multiply by 6.945) ( Table 2 ). Vegan participants had a significant mean (SD) decrease of −1.9 (0.7) kg in body weight (95% CI, −3.3 to −0.6 kg) from baseline to 8 weeks compared with participants on the omnivorous diet ( P  = .01) ( Figure 2 ), although weight loss was observed for both diet groups. Vegans also experienced a larger but nonsignificant absolute median decrease in fasting high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, vitamin B 12 , and TMAO levels; a lesser but nonsignificant decrease in glucose levels; and a nonsignificant increase in fasting triglycerides at 8 weeks from baseline compared with omnivores ( Figure 2 ).

Three outlier TMAO levels greater than 15 μM were noted: 2 at baseline and 1 at 8 weeks. After the outliers were eliminated, the TMAO level was significantly different between diet groups at 8 weeks: in this analysis, participants on the vegan diet showed a mean (SD) decrease of −2.1 (0.7) μM (95% CI, −3.5 to −0.7 μM) in the difference of TMAO from baseline to 8 weeks compared with participants on the omnivorous diet (eFigure 13 in Supplement 2 ).

Paired and unpaired 2-tailed t tests indicate minimal differences between statistical analysis approach (eTables 21 and 22 in Supplement 2 ). Participants receiving the omnivorous diet had nominally higher diet satisfaction at weeks 4 and 8 compared with vegan participants (eTable 13 in Supplement 2 ). Additional results are available in eResults and eTables 14 to 20 in Supplement 2 .

In this randomized clinical trial of healthy, adult identical twins, the 8-week change in LDL-C level—the primary outcome—was significantly lower for twins receiving the vegan diet compared with twins receiving the omnivorous diet. Insulin levels and weight were also significantly lower among the twins on the vegan diet from baseline to 8 weeks. Vegan-diet participants had total lower protein intake as a percentage of calories, lower dietary satisfaction, lower intake of dietary cholesterol, but higher intake of vegetable servings and intake of dietary iron. Vegans had lower intake of vitamin B 12 , yet serum vitamin B 12 levels were not statistically different than omnivores at 8 weeks, likely because of preserved stores. 27 Long-term vegans are typically encouraged to take a cyanocobalamin (vitamin B 12 ) supplement.

Two factors may have limited our opportunity to observe additional differences between the study groups. First, participants in both diet groups were assigned to eat a healthy diet, usually healthier compared with their prestudy dietary pattern demonstrated by increased vegetable intake and decreased refined grains intake. Even the omnivorous participants improved their diet quality during the 8-week intervention (eg, increased vegetables and whole grain intake and decreased added sugars and refined grains). Second, within both groups, potential differences in clinical end point changes may have been blunted because participants were healthy at baseline. For example, participants’ mean baseline LDL-C level was 114 mg/dL, 26 leaving minimal room for participants to improve through diet alone. Nonetheless, we observed significant improvements in 3 clinical outcomes (LDL-C, insulin, and weight) among the vegan participants.

Our results corroborate a previous finding showing that eating a vegan diet can improve cardiovascular health. 28 A larger body of evidence from randomized clinical trials suggests that vegetarian and other plant-based dietary patterns lower weight 29 - 31 and improve lipid management, 30 , 32 , 33 glucose metabolism, 33 , 34 blood pressure, 35 - 37 and cardiometabolic health. 38 Our results also mirror a recently completed 2-year dietary intervention trial among African Americans randomized to a vegan or low-fat omnivorous diet, finding improvements in body weight and cardiovascular disease risk factors. 39

Novel to this study was our population of identical twins, a valuable resource in scientific research that provided a unique opportunity to investigate the effects of a dietary intervention while controlling for genetic and environmental factors, 40 influences that can significantly impact health outcomes, including body weight, cardiovascular health, and metabolic function. 40 , 41 Because identical twins have nearly identical DNA and many shared experiences (eg, upbringing, geographic region growing up, and similar exposure to other variables), observed differences in health outcomes after adoption of different dietary patterns can largely be attributed to the diet itself.

We were surprised that TMAO concentrations did not significantly differ between diets at 8 weeks because of the higher meat content in the omnivorous diet and of the meat TMAO precursors choline and carnitine. 42 , 43 Although some studies 44 , 45 report a positive association between the concentration of serum TMAO and development of cardiovascular disease, whether TMAO is a bystander or mediator of disease remains unknown. In a sensitivity analysis that removed 3 TMAO outlier participants, lower TMAO levels were found in the vegan participants. Prior research 42 , 43 has suggested that vegans have lower TMAO levels than meat or fish eaters because of the TMAO precursors choline and carnitine in animal products. In a recent crossover dietary trial (Study With Appetizing Plantfood-Meat Eating Alternative Trial [SWAP-MEAT]), 46 participants consuming plant-based alternative meat vs animal meat had significantly lower TMAO concentrations. In addition to our 3 TMAO outliers, we observed variability among participants in TMAO concentration changes. Further investigation is needed on TMAO as a risk factor for cardiovascular disease and the association of dietary choline and carnitine vs fish with serum TMAO concentrations.

A recent meta-epidemiologic study 47 examining dietary recommendations from current clinical practice guidelines recommends diets rich in unrefined plant foods and low in refined and animal-based foods. Clinical practice guidelines from the American Heart Association recommend that practitioners encourage patients to choose healthy sources of protein, mostly from plants, to promote cardiovascular health. 11 , 48 Additionally, Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2020-2025 49 includes a healthy, vegetarian-style dietary pattern that can be adopted for improved health and chronic disease prevention. Although our findings suggest that vegan diets offer a protective cardiometabolic advantage compared with a healthy, omnivorous diet, excluding all meats and/or dairy products may not be necessary because research 22 , 50 suggests that cardiovascular benefits can be achieved with modest reductions in animal foods and increases in healthy plant-based foods compared with typical diets. We believe lower dietary satisfaction in the vegan group may have been attributable to the strictness of the vegan diet, creating more barriers for people to follow the vegan diet guidelines. Some people may find a less restrictive diet preferable for LDL-C–lowering effects. Future studies assessing health benefits of less strict plant-based diets will be necessary to assess these benefits, especially in a study model limiting additional biases (eg, in twins). Within a clinical setting, patients should be supported in choosing a dietary pattern that fits their needs and preferences. 41 , 51 Clinicians should allow patients to make informed choices that support them to choose which dietary approach is most suitable for them. At a population level, wider adoption of a culturally appropriate dietary pattern that is higher in plant foods and lower in animal foods can promote health and environmental benefits. 3 , 4 , 10 , 52

Several aspects of our design and implementation were strengths. First, enrolling identical twins was beneficial because we were able to eliminate the confounding influences of age, sex, and genetic factors that may affect clinical outcomes. Identical twins often share a similar environment and lifestyle, reducing environmental factors on the study results. Second, the initial 4-week period of food delivery facilitated participants’ high adherence to the diet, whereas the latter 4 weeks of self-provided foods increased generalizability. Third, we used LDL-C, a well-established cardiometabolic clinical value, as the primary outcome. 26 Fourth, we assessed an extensive set of well-studied secondary clinical outcomes to evaluate overall cardiometabolic health. Fifth, diet data collection using the state-of-the-art Nutrition Data System for Research allowed us to assess and report on adherence—an important metric in free-living trials 53 —and compare macronutrient and micronutrient intakes. Sixth, previous trials 11 , 13 , 31 , 50 , 54 , 55 have reported similar metabolic and weight loss benefits of vegan diets yet tended to focus on very low–fat vegan diets, study populations with diabetes or overweight, and comparison diets with limited attention to equipoise. Novelties of the current trial were the use of a more moderate- and higher-fat vegan diet (unsaturated fat), 11 the generally healthy population without diabetes or overweight, and a healthy omnivorous comparison diet (eg, higher in vegetables and fiber than the baseline diet). Seventh, to provide fair and objective comparisons and avoid “straw man” comparators, we emphasized high-quality, exemplary dietary choices to participants on both diets.

The study also has some limitations. First, the adult twin population was generally healthy and may not be generalizable to other populations. Second, we studied a small sample size (N = 44); however, the use of monozygotic twins may reduce issues of reproducibility because the twins acted as their own controls. Third, study duration was short (8 weeks); however, in this study as well as several previous trials, 46 , 56 clinically relevant changes in cardiovascular risk factors (eg, LDL-C and weight) were observed as early as 4 weeks into the intervention. Fourth, there was no follow-up period, which limited insights of poststudy stability and sustainability of diet behaviors. Fifth, our study was not designed to be isocaloric; thus, changes to LDL-C cannot be separated from weight loss observed in the study. We designed this study as a “free-living” study; thus, the behavior of following a vegan diet may induce the physiological changes we observed. However, the biological mechanisms cannot be determined to be causally from solely the vegan diet alone because of confounding variables (weight loss, decrease in caloric intake, and increase in vegetable intake). Sixth, diversity in education and socioeconomic status was lacking.

In this randomized clinical trial, we observed cardiometabolic advantages for the healthy vegan vs the healthy omnivorous diet among healthy, adult identical twins. Clinicians may consider recommending plant-based diets to reduce cardiometabolic risk factors, as well as aligning with environmental benefits.

Accepted for Publication: October 12, 2023.

Published: November 30, 2023. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2023.44457

Correction: This article was corrected on December 26, 2023, to fix the last sentence in the Secondary Outcomes subsection of the Results section.

Open Access: This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the CC-BY License . © 2023 Landry MJ et al. JAMA Network Open .

Corresponding Author: Christopher D. Gardner, PhD, Stanford Prevention Research Center, Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, Stanford University, 3180 Porter Dr, Palo Alto, CA 94304 ( [email protected] ).

Author Contributions: Dr Gardner had full access to all of the data in the study and takes responsibility for the integrity of the data and the accuracy of the data analysis. Drs Landry and Ward are co–first authors.

Concept and design: Landry, Cunanan, Perelman, Robinson, J. L. Sonnenburg, Gardner.

Acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data: All authors.

Drafting of the manuscript: Landry, Ward, Cunanan, Durand, Perelman, Dant.

Critical review of the manuscript for important intellectual content: Landry, Ward, Cunanan, Robinson, Hennings, Koh, Dant, Zeitlin, Ebel, E. D. Sonnenburg, J. L. Sonnenburg, Gardner.

Statistical analysis: Landry, Ward, Durand, Zeitlin.

Obtained funding: J. L. Sonnenburg, Gardner.

Administrative, technical, or material support: Perelman, Robinson, Hennings, Dant, E. D. Sonnenburg, J. L. Sonnenburg.

Supervision: Cunanan, Dant, E. D. Sonnenburg, J. L. Sonnenburg, Gardner.

Conflict of Interest Disclosures: Dr Ebel reported receiving grants from the National Science Foundation Postdoctoral Research Fellowship in Biology during the conduct of the study. Dr Gardner reported receiving funding from Beyond Meat outside the submitted work. Dr J. L. Sonnenburg is a Chan Zuckerberg Biohub investigator. No other disclosures were reported.

Funding/Support: This study was funded by the Vogt Foundation (Drs Robinson, J. L. Sonnenburg, and Gardner and Ms Hennings), grants UL1TR001085 and TL1R001085 from the Stanford Clinical and Translational Science Award unit (Dr O’Hara), and grant T32HL161270 from the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (Dr Ward).

Role of the Funder/Sponsor: The funders had no role in the design and conduct of the study; collection, management, analysis, and interpretation of the data; preparation, review, or approval of the manuscript; and decision to submit the manuscript for publication.

Data Sharing Statement: See Supplement 3 .

Additional Contributions: We acknowledge the study participants without whom this investigation would not have been possible.

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New findings on CARD14 protein's role in eczema and psoriasis

by Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center

Our skin–the body's largest organ–provides the first line of defense against infections and many other threats to our health. Decades of research has shown that a wide range of diseases can occur, or become worse, when the skin cannot form an effective barrier.

Now, experts in human genetics and asthma research at Cincinnati Children's report discovering a novel molecular signaling pathway that plays a crucial role in maintaining our skin barrier . The far-reaching findings eventually may lead to new ways to prevent and treat inflammatory skin diseases such as atopic dermatitis (AD, or eczema) and psoriasis.

The study was published online Aug. 6, 2024, in Cell Reports . The team of 22 co-authors was led by first author Stanley DeVore, Ph.D., and corresponding author Gurjit Khurana Hershey, MD, Ph.D.

"Our research discovered a previously unknown cellular pathway involving the protein CARD14," DeVore says. "When this protein works properly, it keeps our skin barrier healthy, but when CARD14 is not working properly, it promotes the development of skin disease.

"We found that CARD14 directly binds and regulates MYC, a protein involved in controlling cell growth that can contribute to cancer when it malfunctions. Our study shows that the proper interaction between these two proteins is important for a healthy skin barrier and protecting against eczema and psoriasis. Additionally, given the association of MYC with cancer, our findings also suggest that dysfunctional CARD14-MYC signaling may contribute to certain types of cancer throughout the body."

Barrier protection that goes deeper than the skin

Previous research has focused on the CARD14-NFκB signaling pathway, which is thought to promote psoriatic diseases when elevated and to promote atopic dermatitis when reduced. Millions of people are affected by these and other inflammatory skin disorders.

"However, that model does not fully explain the variability in CARD14-driven diseases," says Hershey, who directs the Division of Asthma Research at Cincinnati Children's. "This new CARD14-MYC signaling pathway strengthens the link between CARD14 and skin barrier health. Its signals regulate the function of MYC in the most common type of skin cell."

Study co-authors say that CARD14 regulates skin barrier function through two mechanisms: stimulating NFκB to establish an antimicrobial barrier and stimulating MYC to help build a physical barrier.

The study further explores how various mutations in CARD14 can promote different skin diseases, including AD and psoriasis. Importantly, the study reports that altered CARD14-MYC signaling could affect barrier function and allergic diseases in other tissues, contributing to asthma by affecting airway tissue linings or contributing to eosinophilic esophagitis by affecting the digestive tract. The novel pathway may also contribute to certain cancers that begin in epithelial tissues.

DeVore says the hunt is on to identify small-molecule agents that can safely influence the CARD14-MYC pathway. In fact, aspects of the study have been included in a recent patent filing.

"Our ultimate goal is to develop novel therapeutics," DeVore says. "We also are conducting studies aimed at identifying cancers that may be affected by CARD14-MYC signaling."

In the meantime, co-authors plan to share their findings at the 2025 Joint Conference of the American Academy of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology (AAAAI) and the World Allergy Organization (WAO), to be held Feb. 28 to March 3 in San Diego.

Co-authors from Cincinnati Children's include Matthew Schuetz, BS; Lauren Alvey, BS; Henry Lujan, Ph.D.; David Ochayon, Ph.D.; Lindsey Williams, BS; Wan-Chi (Daisy) Chang, MS; Alyssa Filuta, MS; Brandy Ruff, BS; Arjun Kothari, MEng; Eric Brandt, Ph.D.; Latha Satish, Ph.D.; Krishna Roskin, Ph.D.; Andrew Herr, Ph.D.; Jocelyn Biagini, Ph.D.; and Lisa Martin, Ph.D.

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• v.74(8); 2010 Oct 11

Presenting and Evaluating Qualitative Research

The purpose of this paper is to help authors to think about ways to present qualitative research papers in the American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education . It also discusses methods for reviewers to assess the rigour, quality, and usefulness of qualitative research. Examples of different ways to present data from interviews, observations, and focus groups are included. The paper concludes with guidance for publishing qualitative research and a checklist for authors and reviewers.

INTRODUCTION

Policy and practice decisions, including those in education, increasingly are informed by findings from qualitative as well as quantitative research. Qualitative research is useful to policymakers because it often describes the settings in which policies will be implemented. Qualitative research is also useful to both pharmacy practitioners and pharmacy academics who are involved in researching educational issues in both universities and practice and in developing teaching and learning.

Qualitative research involves the collection, analysis, and interpretation of data that are not easily reduced to numbers. These data relate to the social world and the concepts and behaviors of people within it. Qualitative research can be found in all social sciences and in the applied fields that derive from them, for example, research in health services, nursing, and pharmacy. 1 It looks at X in terms of how X varies in different circumstances rather than how big is X or how many Xs are there? 2 Textbooks often subdivide research into qualitative and quantitative approaches, furthering the common assumption that there are fundamental differences between the 2 approaches. With pharmacy educators who have been trained in the natural and clinical sciences, there is often a tendency to embrace quantitative research, perhaps due to familiarity. A growing consensus is emerging that sees both qualitative and quantitative approaches as useful to answering research questions and understanding the world. Increasingly mixed methods research is being carried out where the researcher explicitly combines the quantitative and qualitative aspects of the study. 3 , 4

Like healthcare, education involves complex human interactions that can rarely be studied or explained in simple terms. Complex educational situations demand complex understanding; thus, the scope of educational research can be extended by the use of qualitative methods. Qualitative research can sometimes provide a better understanding of the nature of educational problems and thus add to insights into teaching and learning in a number of contexts. For example, at the University of Nottingham, we conducted in-depth interviews with pharmacists to determine their perceptions of continuing professional development and who had influenced their learning. We also have used a case study approach using observation of practice and in-depth interviews to explore physiotherapists' views of influences on their leaning in practice. We have conducted in-depth interviews with a variety of stakeholders in Malawi, Africa, to explore the issues surrounding pharmacy academic capacity building. A colleague has interviewed and conducted focus groups with students to explore cultural issues as part of a joint Nottingham-Malaysia pharmacy degree program. Another colleague has interviewed pharmacists and patients regarding their expectations before and after clinic appointments and then observed pharmacist-patient communication in clinics and assessed it using the Calgary Cambridge model in order to develop recommendations for communication skills training. 5 We have also performed documentary analysis on curriculum data to compare pharmacist and nurse supplementary prescribing courses in the United Kingdom.

It is important to choose the most appropriate methods for what is being investigated. Qualitative research is not appropriate to answer every research question and researchers need to think carefully about their objectives. Do they wish to study a particular phenomenon in depth (eg, students' perceptions of studying in a different culture)? Or are they more interested in making standardized comparisons and accounting for variance (eg, examining differences in examination grades after changing the way the content of a module is taught). Clearly a quantitative approach would be more appropriate in the last example. As with any research project, a clear research objective has to be identified to know which methods should be applied.

Types of qualitative data include:

• Audio recordings and transcripts from in-depth or semi-structured interviews
• Structured interview questionnaires containing substantial open comments including a substantial number of responses to open comment items.
• Audio recordings and transcripts from focus group sessions.
• Field notes (notes taken by the researcher while in the field [setting] being studied)
• Video recordings (eg, lecture delivery, class assignments, laboratory performance)
• Case study notes
• Documents (reports, meeting minutes, e-mails)
• Diaries, video diaries
• Observation notes
• Press clippings
• Photographs

RIGOUR IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Qualitative research is often criticized as biased, small scale, anecdotal, and/or lacking rigor; however, when it is carried out properly it is unbiased, in depth, valid, reliable, credible and rigorous. In qualitative research, there needs to be a way of assessing the “extent to which claims are supported by convincing evidence.” 1 Although the terms reliability and validity traditionally have been associated with quantitative research, increasingly they are being seen as important concepts in qualitative research as well. Examining the data for reliability and validity assesses both the objectivity and credibility of the research. Validity relates to the honesty and genuineness of the research data, while reliability relates to the reproducibility and stability of the data.

The validity of research findings refers to the extent to which the findings are an accurate representation of the phenomena they are intended to represent. The reliability of a study refers to the reproducibility of the findings. Validity can be substantiated by a number of techniques including triangulation use of contradictory evidence, respondent validation, and constant comparison. Triangulation is using 2 or more methods to study the same phenomenon. Contradictory evidence, often known as deviant cases, must be sought out, examined, and accounted for in the analysis to ensure that researcher bias does not interfere with or alter their perception of the data and any insights offered. Respondent validation, which is allowing participants to read through the data and analyses and provide feedback on the researchers' interpretations of their responses, provides researchers with a method of checking for inconsistencies, challenges the researchers' assumptions, and provides them with an opportunity to re-analyze their data. The use of constant comparison means that one piece of data (for example, an interview) is compared with previous data and not considered on its own, enabling researchers to treat the data as a whole rather than fragmenting it. Constant comparison also enables the researcher to identify emerging/unanticipated themes within the research project.

STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Qualitative researchers have been criticized for overusing interviews and focus groups at the expense of other methods such as ethnography, observation, documentary analysis, case studies, and conversational analysis. Qualitative research has numerous strengths when properly conducted.

Strengths of Qualitative Research

• Issues can be examined in detail and in depth.
• Interviews are not restricted to specific questions and can be guided/redirected by the researcher in real time.
• The research framework and direction can be quickly revised as new information emerges.
• The data based on human experience that is obtained is powerful and sometimes more compelling than quantitative data.
• Subtleties and complexities about the research subjects and/or topic are discovered that are often missed by more positivistic enquiries.
• Data usually are collected from a few cases or individuals so findings cannot be generalized to a larger population. Findings can however be transferable to another setting.

Limitations of Qualitative Research

• Research quality is heavily dependent on the individual skills of the researcher and more easily influenced by the researcher's personal biases and idiosyncrasies.
• Rigor is more difficult to maintain, assess, and demonstrate.
• The volume of data makes analysis and interpretation time consuming.
• It is sometimes not as well understood and accepted as quantitative research within the scientific community
• The researcher's presence during data gathering, which is often unavoidable in qualitative research, can affect the subjects' responses.
• Issues of anonymity and confidentiality can present problems when presenting findings
• Findings can be more difficult and time consuming to characterize in a visual way.

PRESENTATION OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH FINDINGS

The following extracts are examples of how qualitative data might be presented:

Data From an Interview.

The following is an example of how to present and discuss a quote from an interview.

The researcher should select quotes that are poignant and/or most representative of the research findings. Including large portions of an interview in a research paper is not necessary and often tedious for the reader. The setting and speakers should be established in the text at the end of the quote.

The student describes how he had used deep learning in a dispensing module. He was able to draw on learning from a previous module, “I found that while using the e learning programme I was able to apply the knowledge and skills that I had gained in last year's diseases and goals of treatment module.” (interviewee 22, male)

This is an excerpt from an article on curriculum reform that used interviews 5 :

The first question was, “Without the accreditation mandate, how much of this curriculum reform would have been attempted?” According to respondents, accreditation played a significant role in prompting the broad-based curricular change, and their comments revealed a nuanced view. Most indicated that the change would likely have occurred even without the mandate from the accreditation process: “It reflects where the profession wants to be … training a professional who wants to take on more responsibility.” However, they also commented that “if it were not mandated, it could have been a very difficult road.” Or it “would have happened, but much later.” The change would more likely have been incremental, “evolutionary,” or far more limited in its scope. “Accreditation tipped the balance” was the way one person phrased it. “Nobody got serious until the accrediting body said it would no longer accredit programs that did not change.”

Data From Observations

The following example is some data taken from observation of pharmacist patient consultations using the Calgary Cambridge guide. 6 , 7 The data are first presented and a discussion follows:

Pharmacist: We will soon be starting a stop smoking clinic. Patient: Is the interview over now? Pharmacist: No this is part of it. (Laughs) You can't tell me to bog off (sic) yet. (pause) We will be starting a stop smoking service here, Patient: Yes. Pharmacist: with one-to-one and we will be able to help you or try to help you. If you want it. In this example, the pharmacist has picked up from the patient's reaction to the stop smoking clinic that she is not receptive to advice about giving up smoking at this time; in fact she would rather end the consultation. The pharmacist draws on his prior relationship with the patient and makes use of a joke to lighten the tone. He feels his message is important enough to persevere but he presents the information in a succinct and non-pressurised way. His final comment of “If you want it” is important as this makes it clear that he is not putting any pressure on the patient to take up this offer. This extract shows that some patient cues were picked up, and appropriately dealt with, but this was not the case in all examples.

Data From Focus Groups

This excerpt from a study involving 11 focus groups illustrates how findings are presented using representative quotes from focus group participants. 8

Those pharmacists who were initially familiar with CPD endorsed the model for their peers, and suggested it had made a meaningful difference in the way they viewed their own practice. In virtually all focus groups sessions, pharmacists familiar with and supportive of the CPD paradigm had worked in collaborative practice environments such as hospital pharmacy practice. For these pharmacists, the major advantage of CPD was the linking of workplace learning with continuous education. One pharmacist stated, “It's amazing how much I have to learn every day, when I work as a pharmacist. With [the learning portfolio] it helps to show how much learning we all do, every day. It's kind of satisfying to look it over and see how much you accomplish.” Within many of the learning portfolio-sharing sessions, debates emerged regarding the true value of traditional continuing education and its outcome in changing an individual's practice. While participants appreciated the opportunity for social and professional networking inherent in some forms of traditional CE, most eventually conceded that the academic value of most CE programming was limited by the lack of a systematic process for following-up and implementing new learning in the workplace. “Well it's nice to go to these [continuing education] events, but really, I don't know how useful they are. You go, you sit, you listen, but then, well I at least forget.”

The following is an extract from a focus group (conducted by the author) with first-year pharmacy students about community placements. It illustrates how focus groups provide a chance for participants to discuss issues on which they might disagree.

Interviewer: So you are saying that you would prefer health related placements? Student 1: Not exactly so long as I could be developing my communication skill. Student 2: Yes but I still think the more health related the placement is the more I'll gain from it. Student 3: I disagree because other people related skills are useful and you may learn those from taking part in a community project like building a garden. Interviewer: So would you prefer a mixture of health and non health related community placements?

GUIDANCE FOR PUBLISHING QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Qualitative research is becoming increasingly accepted and published in pharmacy and medical journals. Some journals and publishers have guidelines for presenting qualitative research, for example, the British Medical Journal 9 and Biomedcentral . 10 Medical Education published a useful series of articles on qualitative research. 11 Some of the important issues that should be considered by authors, reviewers and editors when publishing qualitative research are discussed below.

Introduction.

A good introduction provides a brief overview of the manuscript, including the research question and a statement justifying the research question and the reasons for using qualitative research methods. This section also should provide background information, including relevant literature from pharmacy, medicine, and other health professions, as well as literature from the field of education that addresses similar issues. Any specific educational or research terminology used in the manuscript should be defined in the introduction.

The methods section should clearly state and justify why the particular method, for example, face to face semistructured interviews, was chosen. The method should be outlined and illustrated with examples such as the interview questions, focusing exercises, observation criteria, etc. The criteria for selecting the study participants should then be explained and justified. The way in which the participants were recruited and by whom also must be stated. A brief explanation/description should be included of those who were invited to participate but chose not to. It is important to consider “fair dealing,” ie, whether the research design explicitly incorporates a wide range of different perspectives so that the viewpoint of 1 group is never presented as if it represents the sole truth about any situation. The process by which ethical and or research/institutional governance approval was obtained should be described and cited.

The study sample and the research setting should be described. Sampling differs between qualitative and quantitative studies. In quantitative survey studies, it is important to select probability samples so that statistics can be used to provide generalizations to the population from which the sample was drawn. Qualitative research necessitates having a small sample because of the detailed and intensive work required for the study. So sample sizes are not calculated using mathematical rules and probability statistics are not applied. Instead qualitative researchers should describe their sample in terms of characteristics and relevance to the wider population. Purposive sampling is common in qualitative research. Particular individuals are chosen with characteristics relevant to the study who are thought will be most informative. Purposive sampling also may be used to produce maximum variation within a sample. Participants being chosen based for example, on year of study, gender, place of work, etc. Representative samples also may be used, for example, 20 students from each of 6 schools of pharmacy. Convenience samples involve the researcher choosing those who are either most accessible or most willing to take part. This may be fine for exploratory studies; however, this form of sampling may be biased and unrepresentative of the population in question. Theoretical sampling uses insights gained from previous research to inform sample selection for a new study. The method for gaining informed consent from the participants should be described, as well as how anonymity and confidentiality of subjects were guaranteed. The method of recording, eg, audio or video recording, should be noted, along with procedures used for transcribing the data.

Data Analysis.

A description of how the data were analyzed also should be included. Was computer-aided qualitative data analysis software such as NVivo (QSR International, Cambridge, MA) used? Arrival at “data saturation” or the end of data collection should then be described and justified. A good rule when considering how much information to include is that readers should have been given enough information to be able to carry out similar research themselves.

One of the strengths of qualitative research is the recognition that data must always be understood in relation to the context of their production. 1 The analytical approach taken should be described in detail and theoretically justified in light of the research question. If the analysis was repeated by more than 1 researcher to ensure reliability or trustworthiness, this should be stated and methods of resolving any disagreements clearly described. Some researchers ask participants to check the data. If this was done, it should be fully discussed in the paper.

An adequate account of how the findings were produced should be included A description of how the themes and concepts were derived from the data also should be included. Was an inductive or deductive process used? The analysis should not be limited to just those issues that the researcher thinks are important, anticipated themes, but also consider issues that participants raised, ie, emergent themes. Qualitative researchers must be open regarding the data analysis and provide evidence of their thinking, for example, were alternative explanations for the data considered and dismissed, and if so, why were they dismissed? It also is important to present outlying or negative/deviant cases that did not fit with the central interpretation.

The interpretation should usually be grounded in interviewees or respondents' contributions and may be semi-quantified, if this is possible or appropriate, for example, “Half of the respondents said …” “The majority said …” “Three said…” Readers should be presented with data that enable them to “see what the researcher is talking about.” 1 Sufficient data should be presented to allow the reader to clearly see the relationship between the data and the interpretation of the data. Qualitative data conventionally are presented by using illustrative quotes. Quotes are “raw data” and should be compiled and analyzed, not just listed. There should be an explanation of how the quotes were chosen and how they are labeled. For example, have pseudonyms been given to each respondent or are the respondents identified using codes, and if so, how? It is important for the reader to be able to see that a range of participants have contributed to the data and that not all the quotes are drawn from 1 or 2 individuals. There is a tendency for authors to overuse quotes and for papers to be dominated by a series of long quotes with little analysis or discussion. This should be avoided.

Participants do not always state the truth and may say what they think the interviewer wishes to hear. A good qualitative researcher should not only examine what people say but also consider how they structured their responses and how they talked about the subject being discussed, for example, the person's emotions, tone, nonverbal communication, etc. If the research was triangulated with other qualitative or quantitative data, this should be discussed.

Discussion.

The findings should be presented in the context of any similar previous research and or theories. A discussion of the existing literature and how this present research contributes to the area should be included. A consideration must also be made about how transferrable the research would be to other settings. Any particular strengths and limitations of the research also should be discussed. It is common practice to include some discussion within the results section of qualitative research and follow with a concluding discussion.

The author also should reflect on their own influence on the data, including a consideration of how the researcher(s) may have introduced bias to the results. The researcher should critically examine their own influence on the design and development of the research, as well as on data collection and interpretation of the data, eg, were they an experienced teacher who researched teaching methods? If so, they should discuss how this might have influenced their interpretation of the results.

Conclusion.

The conclusion should summarize the main findings from the study and emphasize what the study adds to knowledge in the area being studied. Mays and Pope suggest the researcher ask the following 3 questions to determine whether the conclusions of a qualitative study are valid 12 : How well does this analysis explain why people behave in the way they do? How comprehensible would this explanation be to a thoughtful participant in the setting? How well does the explanation cohere with what we already know?

CHECKLIST FOR QUALITATIVE PAPERS

This paper establishes criteria for judging the quality of qualitative research. It provides guidance for authors and reviewers to prepare and review qualitative research papers for the American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education . A checklist is provided in Appendix 1 to assist both authors and reviewers of qualitative data.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Thank you to the 3 reviewers whose ideas helped me to shape this paper.

Appendix 1. Checklist for authors and reviewers of qualitative research.

Introduction

• □ Research question is clearly stated.
• □ Research question is justified and related to the existing knowledge base (empirical research, theory, policy).
• □ Any specific research or educational terminology used later in manuscript is defined.
• □ The process by which ethical and or research/institutional governance approval was obtained is described and cited.
• □ Reason for choosing particular research method is stated.
• □ Criteria for selecting study participants are explained and justified.
• □ Recruitment methods are explicitly stated.
• □ Details of who chose not to participate and why are given.
• □ Study sample and research setting used are described.
• □ Method for gaining informed consent from the participants is described.
• □ Maintenance/Preservation of subject anonymity and confidentiality is described.
• □ Method of recording data (eg, audio or video recording) and procedures for transcribing data are described.
• □ Methods are outlined and examples given (eg, interview guide).
• □ Decision to stop data collection is described and justified.
• □ Data analysis and verification are described, including by whom they were performed.
• □ Methods for identifying/extrapolating themes and concepts from the data are discussed.
• □ Sufficient data are presented to allow a reader to assess whether or not the interpretation is supported by the data.
• □ Outlying or negative/deviant cases that do not fit with the central interpretation are presented.
• □ Transferability of research findings to other settings is discussed.
• □ Findings are presented in the context of any similar previous research and social theories.
• □ Discussion often is incorporated into the results in qualitative papers.
• □ A discussion of the existing literature and how this present research contributes to the area is included.
• □ Any particular strengths and limitations of the research are discussed.
• □ Reflection of the influence of the researcher(s) on the data, including a consideration of how the researcher(s) may have introduced bias to the results is included.

Conclusions

• □ The conclusion states the main finings of the study and emphasizes what the study adds to knowledge in the subject area.

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Common low-calorie sweetener may be riskier for the heart than sugar, study suggests

Another study is raising concern about the safety of the widely used sugar alcohol sweetener erythritol , a low-calorie sugar substitute found in “keto-friendly” foods, baked goods and candies. Researchers from the Cleveland Clinic compared erythritol to typical sugar and found only erythritol caused worrisome cardiovascular effects. 

Although the study was small, it’s the first head-to-head look at people’s blood levels after they consume products with erythritol or sugar (glucose). 

“We compared the results, and glucose caused none of the problems,” said Dr. Stanley Hazen, a cardiologist at the Cleveland Clinic and the lead author of the study, published Thursday morning in the journal Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology. 

Erythritol is one ingredient on a growing list of nonsugar sweeteners found in low-calorie and sugar-free foods. Erythritol and xylitol are sugar alcohols that are sweet like sugar but with far fewer calories. Erythritol is often mixed with another sweetener, stevia, and xylitol is often found in gum, mouthwash and toothpaste. 

Earlier studies from Hazen’s lab — one published last year and the other in June — found potential links between the sugar alcohols and an increased risk of heart attacks and strokes. The research suggested both sugar alcohols might make blood platelets stickier and therefore more susceptible to clotting and blocking veins or arteries, in turn contributing to heart attacks and strokes.

For the new research, Hazen’s team analyzed the heart effects of erythritol and regular sugar — in this case, simple glucose — by enrolling two groups of healthy middle-aged male and female volunteers: 10 who consumed the erythritol and 10 who consumed sugar.

Both groups fasted overnight. In the morning, their blood was drawn to measure platelet activity. Then, half the volunteers drank glasses of water with 30 grams of glucose mixed in, and half drank glasses of water with 30 grams of erythritol. Hazen said 30 grams of erythritol is an amount typical of erythritol-sweetened foods. 

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Around 30 minutes after each group consumed the sweetened drinks, their blood was drawn and retested. Researchers found the people who consumed erythritol had increased platelet aggregation — meaning the blood was more likely to clot. Adults who drank the normal sugar drink had no changes in platelet aggregation. 

The researchers measured a 1,000-fold increase in blood erythritol levels in the group given the erythritol drink. Those who drank glucose water didn’t have any changes in blood erythritol levels, and their blood glucose levels were only slightly increased. The finding stood out to Hazen, because it far exceeded the trace levels of erythritol that occur naturally in the blood. 

“The amount in sugar substitutes is thousands of folds higher than what is made in our bodies, so to call it ‘natural,’ it’s not,” he said. “Your best recommendation is to avoid the sugar substitutes, and sugar alcohols in particular, because there’s an acute increase in the likelihood of clotting events once you ingest them.”

The Food and Drug Administration considers artificial sweeteners, including erythritol and xylitol, as GRAS, or generally recognized as safe . Hazen hopes mounting evidence about the sugar alcohols might trigger the FDA to look more closely at the data. 

Outside the U.S., the concerns have drawn interest among food regulators. Last year, for instance, the European Food Safety Authority recommended that the European Commission request data about how much erythritol is in food, which could help clarify the risks. 

Do the findings indicate that erythritol is worse overall than high-calorie sugar? Valisa Hedrick, a registered dietitian at Virginia Tech, said a diet high in sugary foods can lead to elevated blood glucose levels that are also linked to stroke and clotting risks. Hedrick wasn’t involved in the Cleveland Clinic study.

The study has several important limitations. Beyond the small number of participants, it measured the effects of erythritol and glucose at only one point in time, as opposed to over months or years of consistent consumption, Hedrick noted.

And the amount of glucose in the sugar water — about 30 grams — is the equivalent of about 120 calories of sugar. Sugary beverages, especially juices and sodas, often contain more sugar. 

For example, a 12-ounce can of Coca-Cola contains 39 grams of sugar, and 12 ounces of Mountain Dew contains 46 grams. 

Michael Goran, a professor of pediatrics at the University of Southern California’s Keck School of Medicine, said it might also be worth comparing erythritol to both fructose and glucose. The combination of fructose and glucose is more typical of sugary juices and sodas than glucose alone, he said. Goran wasn’t part of the new study.

Hazen’s study looked at glucose alone. 

Although the Cleveland Clinic study didn't find negative effects from consuming sugar, the researchers agreed the data doesn’t mean sugar is in the clear. Higher amounts of sugar may cause similar platelet effects, especially in people with diabetes, who can’t effectively regulate high blood glucose.

Hazen’s study focused specifically on healthy people, not people with diabetes.

It could also be important to analyze whether heart effects differ when people consume food with erythritol compared with water with erythritol, said Dr. Michelle Pearlman, a gastroenterologist who is CEO and a co-founder of the Prime Institute in Miami.

“Factors such as protein, fat, fiber and other nutrients might influence this response,” she said. 

Ultimately, said Hedrick of Virginia Tech, the new study underscores the need for more research comparing the health effects of sweeteners versus sugar.

Hazen and his colleagues concluded the research by urging further studies focusing on erythritol’s heart risks, particularly in people already at higher risk of strokes and clotting. 

NBC News contributor Caroline Hopkins is a health and science journalist who covers cancer treatment for Precision Oncology News. She is a graduate of the Columbia University Graduate School of Journalism.