what is a case study a level psychology

Case Studies ( AQA A Level Psychology )

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Psychology Content Creator

Case Studies

• Case studies are detailed and in-depth investigations of a small group or an individual
• They allow researchers to examine individuals in great depth 
• Behaviour is explored in a way where researchers can explain the feelings of the individual around particular behaviours and issues 
• Data is often collected through interviews or observations, generating mostly qualitative data, but can be triangulated with methods that generate quantitative data also
• Most case studies tend to be longitudinal i.e. a participant's experience/progress is tracked and measured (qualitatively and sometimes quantitatively) over time
• The case of  HM is an example of a case study of an individual with brain damage: qualitative data was obtained via interviews and observations; quantitative data was obtained via memory tests, IQ tests and MRI scanning of his brain

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What Is a Case Study?

Weighing the pros and cons of this method of research

Verywell / Colleen Tighe

• Pros and Cons

What Types of Case Studies Are Out There?

Where do you find data for a case study, how do i write a psychology case study.

A case study is an in-depth study of one person, group, or event. In a case study, nearly every aspect of the subject's life and history is analyzed to seek patterns and causes of behavior. Case studies can be used in many different fields, including psychology, medicine, education, anthropology, political science, and social work.

The point of a case study is to learn as much as possible about an individual or group so that the information can be generalized to many others. Unfortunately, case studies tend to be highly subjective, and it is sometimes difficult to generalize results to a larger population.

While case studies focus on a single individual or group, they follow a format similar to other types of psychology writing. If you are writing a case study, we got you—here are some rules of APA format to reference.  

At a Glance

A case study, or an in-depth study of a person, group, or event, can be a useful research tool when used wisely. In many cases, case studies are best used in situations where it would be difficult or impossible for you to conduct an experiment. They are helpful for looking at unique situations and allow researchers to gather a lot of˜ information about a specific individual or group of people. However, it's important to be cautious of any bias we draw from them as they are highly subjective.

What Are the Benefits and Limitations of Case Studies?

A case study can have its strengths and weaknesses. Researchers must consider these pros and cons before deciding if this type of study is appropriate for their needs.

One of the greatest advantages of a case study is that it allows researchers to investigate things that are often difficult or impossible to replicate in a lab. Some other benefits of a case study:

• Allows researchers to capture information on the 'how,' 'what,' and 'why,' of something that's implemented
• Gives researchers the chance to collect information on why one strategy might be chosen over another
• Permits researchers to develop hypotheses that can be explored in experimental research

On the other hand, a case study can have some drawbacks:

• It cannot necessarily be generalized to the larger population
• Cannot demonstrate cause and effect
• It may not be scientifically rigorous
• It can lead to bias

Researchers may choose to perform a case study if they want to explore a unique or recently discovered phenomenon. Through their insights, researchers develop additional ideas and study questions that might be explored in future studies.

It's important to remember that the insights from case studies cannot be used to determine cause-and-effect relationships between variables. However, case studies may be used to develop hypotheses that can then be addressed in experimental research.

Case Study Examples

There have been a number of notable case studies in the history of psychology. Much of  Freud's work and theories were developed through individual case studies. Some great examples of case studies in psychology include:

• Anna O : Anna O. was a pseudonym of a woman named Bertha Pappenheim, a patient of a physician named Josef Breuer. While she was never a patient of Freud's, Freud and Breuer discussed her case extensively. The woman was experiencing symptoms of a condition that was then known as hysteria and found that talking about her problems helped relieve her symptoms. Her case played an important part in the development of talk therapy as an approach to mental health treatment.
• Phineas Gage : Phineas Gage was a railroad employee who experienced a terrible accident in which an explosion sent a metal rod through his skull, damaging important portions of his brain. Gage recovered from his accident but was left with serious changes in both personality and behavior.
• Genie : Genie was a young girl subjected to horrific abuse and isolation. The case study of Genie allowed researchers to study whether language learning was possible, even after missing critical periods for language development. Her case also served as an example of how scientific research may interfere with treatment and lead to further abuse of vulnerable individuals.

Such cases demonstrate how case research can be used to study things that researchers could not replicate in experimental settings. In Genie's case, her horrific abuse denied her the opportunity to learn a language at critical points in her development.

This is clearly not something researchers could ethically replicate, but conducting a case study on Genie allowed researchers to study phenomena that are otherwise impossible to reproduce.

There are a few different types of case studies that psychologists and other researchers might use:

• Collective case studies : These involve studying a group of individuals. Researchers might study a group of people in a certain setting or look at an entire community. For example, psychologists might explore how access to resources in a community has affected the collective mental well-being of those who live there.
• Descriptive case studies : These involve starting with a descriptive theory. The subjects are then observed, and the information gathered is compared to the pre-existing theory.
• Explanatory case studies : These   are often used to do causal investigations. In other words, researchers are interested in looking at factors that may have caused certain things to occur.
• Exploratory case studies : These are sometimes used as a prelude to further, more in-depth research. This allows researchers to gather more information before developing their research questions and hypotheses .
• Instrumental case studies : These occur when the individual or group allows researchers to understand more than what is initially obvious to observers.
• Intrinsic case studies : This type of case study is when the researcher has a personal interest in the case. Jean Piaget's observations of his own children are good examples of how an intrinsic case study can contribute to the development of a psychological theory.

The three main case study types often used are intrinsic, instrumental, and collective. Intrinsic case studies are useful for learning about unique cases. Instrumental case studies help look at an individual to learn more about a broader issue. A collective case study can be useful for looking at several cases simultaneously.

The type of case study that psychology researchers use depends on the unique characteristics of the situation and the case itself.

There are a number of different sources and methods that researchers can use to gather information about an individual or group. Six major sources that have been identified by researchers are:

• Archival records : Census records, survey records, and name lists are examples of archival records.
• Direct observation : This strategy involves observing the subject, often in a natural setting . While an individual observer is sometimes used, it is more common to utilize a group of observers.
• Documents : Letters, newspaper articles, administrative records, etc., are the types of documents often used as sources.
• Interviews : Interviews are one of the most important methods for gathering information in case studies. An interview can involve structured survey questions or more open-ended questions.
• Participant observation : When the researcher serves as a participant in events and observes the actions and outcomes, it is called participant observation.
• Physical artifacts : Tools, objects, instruments, and other artifacts are often observed during a direct observation of the subject.

If you have been directed to write a case study for a psychology course, be sure to check with your instructor for any specific guidelines you need to follow. If you are writing your case study for a professional publication, check with the publisher for their specific guidelines for submitting a case study.

Here is a general outline of what should be included in a case study.

Section 1: A Case History

This section will have the following structure and content:

Background information : The first section of your paper will present your client's background. Include factors such as age, gender, work, health status, family mental health history, family and social relationships, drug and alcohol history, life difficulties, goals, and coping skills and weaknesses.

Description of the presenting problem : In the next section of your case study, you will describe the problem or symptoms that the client presented with.

Describe any physical, emotional, or sensory symptoms reported by the client. Thoughts, feelings, and perceptions related to the symptoms should also be noted. Any screening or diagnostic assessments that are used should also be described in detail and all scores reported.

Your diagnosis : Provide your diagnosis and give the appropriate Diagnostic and Statistical Manual code. Explain how you reached your diagnosis, how the client's symptoms fit the diagnostic criteria for the disorder(s), or any possible difficulties in reaching a diagnosis.

Section 2: Treatment Plan

This portion of the paper will address the chosen treatment for the condition. This might also include the theoretical basis for the chosen treatment or any other evidence that might exist to support why this approach was chosen.

• Cognitive behavioral approach : Explain how a cognitive behavioral therapist would approach treatment. Offer background information on cognitive behavioral therapy and describe the treatment sessions, client response, and outcome of this type of treatment. Make note of any difficulties or successes encountered by your client during treatment.
• Humanistic approach : Describe a humanistic approach that could be used to treat your client, such as client-centered therapy . Provide information on the type of treatment you chose, the client's reaction to the treatment, and the end result of this approach. Explain why the treatment was successful or unsuccessful.
• Psychoanalytic approach : Describe how a psychoanalytic therapist would view the client's problem. Provide some background on the psychoanalytic approach and cite relevant references. Explain how psychoanalytic therapy would be used to treat the client, how the client would respond to therapy, and the effectiveness of this treatment approach.
• Pharmacological approach : If treatment primarily involves the use of medications, explain which medications were used and why. Provide background on the effectiveness of these medications and how monotherapy may compare with an approach that combines medications with therapy or other treatments.

This section of a case study should also include information about the treatment goals, process, and outcomes.

When you are writing a case study, you should also include a section where you discuss the case study itself, including the strengths and limitiations of the study. You should note how the findings of your case study might support previous research. 

In your discussion section, you should also describe some of the implications of your case study. What ideas or findings might require further exploration? How might researchers go about exploring some of these questions in additional studies?

Need More Tips?

Here are a few additional pointers to keep in mind when formatting your case study:

• Never refer to the subject of your case study as "the client." Instead, use their name or a pseudonym.
• Read examples of case studies to gain an idea about the style and format.
• Remember to use APA format when citing references .

Crowe S, Cresswell K, Robertson A, Huby G, Avery A, Sheikh A. The case study approach .  BMC Med Res Methodol . 2011;11:100.

Crowe S, Cresswell K, Robertson A, Huby G, Avery A, Sheikh A. The case study approach . BMC Med Res Methodol . 2011 Jun 27;11:100. doi:10.1186/1471-2288-11-100

Gagnon, Yves-Chantal.  The Case Study as Research Method: A Practical Handbook . Canada, Chicago Review Press Incorporated DBA Independent Pub Group, 2010.

Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research and Applications: Design and Methods . United States, SAGE Publications, 2017.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Case Studies (A2 only)

Case studies.

A case study is an in-depth study, using a range of methods on one person or a small group.

Explanation of case studies

• Because a case study uses a range of different research methods, this increases reliability by the process of triangulation (using a range of different methods to increase reliability).
• Using a range of different methods is a way of double-checking results.
• Examples of case studies include Freud’s (1909) Little Hans and KF and HM examples of brain damaged patients in memory.

Strengths of case studies

• Triangulation – internal reliability.
• In-depth and detailed.

Limitations of case studies

• Lack external reliability – cannot generalise.
• Time consuming.
• Can be unethical.

1 Social Influence

1.1 Social Influence

1.1.1 Conformity

1.1.2 Asch (1951)

1.1.3 Sherif (1935)

1.1.4 Conformity to Social Roles

1.1.5 BBC Prison Study

1.1.6 End of Topic Test - Conformity

1.1.7 Obedience

1.1.8 Analysing Milgram's Experiment

1.1.9 Agentic State & Legitimate Authority

1.1.10 Variables of Obedience

1.1.11 Resistance to Social Influence

1.1.12 Minority Influence & Social Change

1.1.13 Minority Influence & Social Impact Theory

1.1.14 End of Topic Test - Social Influences

1.1.15 Exam-Style Question - Conformity

1.1.16 Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Social Influence

2.1.1 Multi-Store Model of Memory

2.1.2 Short-Term vs Long-Term Memory

2.1.3 Long-Term Memory

2.1.4 Support for the Multi-Store Model of Memory

2.1.5 Duration Studies

2.1.6 Capacity Studies

2.1.7 Coding Studies

2.1.8 The Working Memory Model

2.1.9 The Working Memory Model 2

2.1.10 Support for the Working Memory Model

2.1.11 Explanations for Forgetting

2.1.12 Studies on Interference

2.1.13 Cue-Dependent Forgetting

2.1.14 Eye Witness Testimony - Loftus & Palmer

2.1.15 Eye Witness Testimony Loftus

2.1.16 Eyewitness Testimony - Post-Event Discussion

2.1.17 Eyewitness Testimony - Age & Misleading Questions

2.1.18 Cognitive Interview

2.1.19 Cognitive Interview - Geiselman & Fisher

2.1.20 End of Topic Test - Memory

2.1.21 Exam-Style Question - Memory

2.1.22 A-A* (AO3/4) - Memory

3 Attachment

3.1 Attachment

3.1.1 Caregiver-Infant Interaction

3.1.2 Condon & Sander (1974)

3.1.3 Schaffer & Emerson (1964)

3.1.4 Multiple Attachments

3.1.5 Studies on the Role of the Father

3.1.6 Animal Studies of Attachment

3.1.7 Explanations of Attachment

3.1.8 Attachment Types - Strange Situation

3.1.9 Cultural Differences in Attachment

3.1.10 Disruption of Attachment

3.1.11 Disruption of Attachment - Privation

3.1.12 Overcoming the Effects of Disruption

3.1.13 The Effects of Institutionalisation

3.1.14 Early Attachment

3.1.15 Critical Period of Attachment

3.1.16 End of Topic Test - Attachment

3.1.17 Exam-Style Question - Attachment

3.1.18 Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Attachment

4 Psychopathology

4.1 Psychopathology

4.1.1 Definitions of Abnormality

4.1.2 Definitions of Abnormality 2

4.1.3 Phobias, Depression & OCD

4.1.4 Phobias: Behavioural Approach

4.1.5 Evaluation of Behavioural Explanations of Phobias

4.1.6 Depression: Cognitive Approach

4.1.7 OCD: Biological Approach

4.1.8 Evidence for the Biological Approach

4.1.9 End of Topic Test - Psychopathy

4.1.10 Exam-Style Question - Phobias

4.1.11 Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Psychopathology

5 Approaches in Psychology

5.1 Approaches in Psychology

5.1.1 Psychology as a Science

5.1.2 Origins of Psychology

5.1.3 Reductionism & Problems with Introspection

5.1.4 The Behaviourist Approach - Classical Conditioning

5.1.5 Pavlov's Experiment

5.1.6 Little Albert Study

5.1.7 The Behaviourist Approach - Operant Conditioning

5.1.8 Social Learning Theory

5.1.9 The Cognitive Approach 1

5.1.10 The Cognitive Approach 2

5.1.11 The Biological Approach

5.1.12 Gottesman (1991) - Twin Studies

5.1.13 Brain Scanning

5.1.14 Structure of Personality & Little Hans

5.1.15 The Psychodynamic Approach (A2 only)

5.1.16 Humanistic Psychology (A2 only)

5.1.17 Aronoff (1957) (A2 Only)

5.1.18 Rogers' Client-Centred Therapy (A2 only)

5.1.19 End of Topic Test - Approaches in Psychology

5.1.20 Exam-Style Question - Approaches in Psychology

5.2 Comparison of Approaches (A2 only)

5.2.1 Psychodynamic Approach

5.2.2 Cognitive Approach

5.2.3 Biological Approach

5.2.4 Behavioural Approach

5.2.5 End of Topic Test - Comparison of Approaches

6 Biopsychology

6.1 Biopsychology

6.1.1 Nervous System Divisions

6.1.2 Neuron Structure & Function

6.1.3 Neurotransmitters

6.1.4 Endocrine System Function

6.1.5 Fight or Flight Response

6.1.6 The Brain (A2 only)

6.1.7 Localisation of Brain Function (A2 only)

6.1.8 Studying the Brain (A2 only)

6.1.9 CIMT (A2 Only) & Postmortem Examinations

6.1.10 Biological Rhythms (A2 only)

6.1.11 Studies on Biological Rhythms (A2 Only)

6.1.12 End of Topic Test - Biopsychology

6.1.13 Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Biopsychology

7 Research Methods

7.1 Research Methods

7.1.1 Experimental Method

7.1.2 Observational Techniques

7.1.3 Covert, Overt & Controlled Observation

7.1.4 Self-Report Techniques

7.1.5 Correlations

7.1.6 Exam-Style Question - Research Methods

7.1.7 End of Topic Test - Research Methods

7.2 Scientific Processes

7.2.1 Aims, Hypotheses & Sampling

7.2.2 Pilot Studies & Design

7.2.3 Questionnaires

7.2.4 Variables & Control

7.2.5 Demand Characteristics & Investigator Effects

7.2.6 Ethics

7.2.7 Limitations of Ethical Guidelines

7.2.8 Consent & Protection from Harm Studies

7.2.9 Peer Review & The Economy

7.2.10 Validity (A2 only)

7.2.11 Reliability (A2 only)

7.2.12 Features of Science (A2 only)

7.2.13 Paradigms & Falsifiability (A2 only)

7.2.14 Scientific Report (A2 only)

7.2.15 Scientific Report 2 (A2 only)

7.2.16 End of Topic Test - Scientific Processes

7.3 Data Handling & Analysis

7.3.1 Types of Data

7.3.2 Descriptive Statistics

7.3.3 Correlation

7.3.4 Evaluation of Descriptive Statistics

7.3.5 Presentation & Display of Data

7.3.6 Levels of Measurement (A2 only)

7.3.7 Content Analysis (A2 only)

7.3.8 Case Studies (A2 only)

7.3.9 Thematic Analysis (A2 only)

7.3.10 End of Topic Test - Data Handling & Analysis

7.4 Inferential Testing

7.4.1 Introduction to Inferential Testing

7.4.2 Sign Test

7.4.3 Piaget Conservation Experiment

7.4.4 Non-Parametric Tests

8 Issues & Debates in Psychology (A2 only)

8.1 Issues & Debates in Psychology (A2 only)

8.1.1 Culture Bias

8.1.2 Sub-Culture Bias

8.1.3 Gender Bias

8.1.4 Ethnocentrism

8.1.5 Cross Cultural Research

8.1.6 Free Will & Determinism

8.1.7 Comparison of Free Will & Determinism

8.1.8 Reductionism & Holism

8.1.9 Reductionist & Holistic Approaches

8.1.10 Nature-Nurture Debate

8.1.11 Interactionist Approach

8.1.12 Nature-Nurture Methods

8.1.13 Nature-Nurture Approaches

8.1.14 Idiographic & Nomothetic Approaches

8.1.15 Socially Sensitive Research

8.1.16 End of Topic Test - Issues and Debates

9 Option 1: Relationships (A2 only)

9.1 Relationships: Sexual Relationships (A2 only)

9.1.1 Sexual Selection & Human Reproductive Behaviour

9.1.2 Intersexual & Intrasexual Selection

9.1.3 Evaluation of Sexual Selection Behaviour

9.1.4 Factors Affecting Attraction: Self-Disclosure

9.1.5 Evaluation of Self-Disclosure Theory

9.1.6 Self Disclosure in Computer Communication

9.1.7 Factors Affecting Attraction: Physical Attributes

9.1.8 Matching Hypothesis Studies

9.1.9 Factors Affecting Physical Attraction

9.1.10 Factors Affecting Attraction: Filter Theory 1

9.1.11 Factors Affecting Attraction: Filter Theory 2

9.1.12 Evaluation of Filter Theory

9.1.13 End of Topic Test - Sexual Relationships

9.2 Relationships: Romantic Relationships (A2 only)

9.2.1 Social Exchange Theory

9.2.2 Evaluation of Social Exchange Theory

9.2.3 Equity Theory

9.2.4 Evaluation of Equity Theory

9.2.5 Rusbult’s Investment Model

9.2.6 Evaluation of Rusbult's Investment Model

9.2.7 Relationship Breakdown

9.2.8 Studies on Relationship Breakdown

9.2.9 Evaluation of Relationship Breakdown

9.2.10 End of Topic Test - Romantic relationships

9.3 Relationships: Virtual & Parasocial (A2 only)

9.3.1 Virtual Relationships in Social Media

9.3.2 Evaluation of Reduced Cues & Hyperpersonal

9.3.3 Parasocial Relationships

9.3.4 Attachment Theory & Parasocial Relationships

9.3.5 Evaluation of Parasocial Relationship Theories

9.3.6 End of Topic Test - Virtual & Parasocial Realtions

10 Option 1: Gender (A2 only)

10.1 Gender (A2 only)

10.1.1 Sex, Gender & Androgyny

10.1.2 Gender Identity Disorder

10.1.3 Biological & Social Explanations of GID

10.1.4 Biological Influences on Gender

10.1.5 Effects of Hormones on Gender

10.1.6 End of Topic Test - Gender 1

10.1.7 Kohlberg’s Theory of Gender Constancy

10.1.8 Evaluation of Kohlberg's Theory

10.1.9 Gender Schema Theory

10.1.10 Psychodynamic Approach to Gender Development 1

10.1.11 Psychodynamic Approach to Gender Development 2

10.1.12 Social Approach to Gender Development

10.1.13 Criticisms of Social Theory

10.1.14 End of Topic Test - Gender 2

10.1.15 Media Influence on Gender Development

10.1.16 Cross Cultural Research

10.1.17 Childcare & Gender Roles

10.1.18 End of Topic Test - Gender 3

11 Option 1: Cognition & Development (A2 only)

11.1 Cognition & Development (A2 only)

11.1.1 Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development 1

11.1.2 Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development 2

11.1.3 Schema Accommodation Assimilation & Equilibration

11.1.4 Piaget & Inhelder’s Three Mountains Task (1956)

11.1.5 Conservation & Class Inclusion

11.1.6 Evaluation of Piaget

11.1.7 End of Topic Test - Cognition & Development 1

11.1.8 Vygotsky

11.1.9 Evaluation of Vygotsky

11.1.10 Baillargeon

11.1.11 Baillargeon's studies

11.1.12 Evaluation of Baillargeon

11.1.13 End of Topic Test - Cognition & Development 2

11.1.14 Sense of Self & Theory of Mind

11.1.15 Baron-Cohen Studies

11.1.16 Selman’s Five Levels of Perspective Taking

11.1.17 Biological Basis of Social Cognition

11.1.18 Evaluation of Biological Basis of Social Cognition

11.1.19 Important Issues in Social Neuroscience

11.1.20 End of Topic Test - Cognition & Development 3

11.1.21 Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Cognition & Development

12 Option 2: Schizophrenia (A2 only)

12.1 Schizophrenia: Diagnosis (A2 only)

12.1.1 Classification & Diagnosis

12.1.2 Reliability & Validity of Diagnosis

12.1.3 Gender & Cultural Bias

12.1.4 Pinto (2017) & Copeland (1971)

12.1.5 End of Topic Test - Scizophrenia Diagnosis

12.2 Schizophrenia: Treatment (A2 only)

12.2.1 Family-Based Psychological Explanations

12.2.2 Evaluation of Family-Based Explanations

12.2.3 Cognitive Explanations

12.2.4 Drug Therapies

12.2.5 Evaluation of Drug Therapies

12.2.6 Biological Explanations for Schizophrenia

12.2.7 Dopamine Hypothesis

12.2.8 End of Topic Test - Schizoprenia Treatment 1

12.2.9 Psychological Therapies 1

12.2.10 Psychological Therapies 2

12.2.11 Evaluation of Psychological Therapies

12.2.12 Interactionist Approach - Diathesis-Stress Model

12.2.13 Interactionist Approach - Triggers & Treatment

12.2.14 Evaluation of the Interactionist Approach

12.2.15 End of Topic Test - Scizophrenia Treatments 2

13 Option 2: Eating Behaviour (A2 only)

13.1 Eating Behaviour (A2 only)

13.1.1 Explanations for Food Preferences

13.1.2 Birch et al (1987) & Lowe et al (2004)

13.1.3 Control of Eating Behaviours

13.1.4 Control of Eating Behaviour: Leptin

13.1.5 Biological Explanations for Anorexia Nervosa

13.1.6 Psychological Explanations: Family Systems Theory

13.1.7 Psychological Explanations: Social Learning Theory

13.1.8 Psychological Explanations: Cognitive Theory

13.1.9 Biological Explanations for Obesity

13.1.10 Biological Explanations: Studies

13.1.11 Psychological Explanations for Obesity

13.1.12 Psychological Explanations: Studies

13.1.13 End of Topic Test - Eating Behaviour

14 Option 2: Stress (A2 only)

14.1 Stress (A2 only)

14.1.1 Physiology of Stress

14.1.2 Role of Stress in Illness

14.1.3 Role of Stress in Illness: Studies

14.1.4 Social Readjustment Rating Scales

14.1.5 Hassles & Uplifts Scales

14.1.6 Stress, Workload & Control

14.1.7 Stress Level Studies

14.1.8 End of Topic Test - Stress 1

14.1.9 Physiological Measures of Stress

14.1.10 Individual Differences

14.1.11 Stress & Gender

14.1.12 Drug Therapy & Biofeedback for Stress

14.1.13 Stress Inoculation Therapy

14.1.14 Social Support & Stress

14.1.15 End of Topic Test - Stress 2

15 Option 3: Aggression (A2 only)

15.1 Aggression: Physiological (A2 only)

15.1.1 Neural Mechanisms

15.1.2 Serotonin

15.1.3 Hormonal Mechanisms

15.1.4 Genetic Factors

15.1.5 Genetic Factors 2

15.1.6 End of Topic Test - Aggression: Physiological 1

15.1.7 Ethological Explanation

15.1.8 Innate Releasing Mechanisms & Fixed Action Pattern

15.1.9 Evolutionary Explanations

15.1.10 Buss et al (1992) - Sex Differences in Jealousy

15.1.11 Evaluation of Evolutionary Explanations

15.1.12 End of Topic Test - Aggression: Physiological 2

15.2 Aggression: Social Psychological (A2 only)

15.2.1 Social Psychological Explanation

15.2.2 Buss (1963) - Frustration/Aggression

15.2.3 Social Psychological Explanation 2

15.2.4 Social Learning Theory (SLT) 1

15.2.5 Social Learning Theory (SLT) 2

15.2.6 Limitations of Social Learning Theory (SLT)

15.2.7 Deindividuation

15.2.8 Deindividuation 2

15.2.9 Deindividuation - Diener et al (1976)

15.2.10 End of Topic Test - Aggression: Social Psychology

15.2.11 Institutional Aggression: Prisons

15.2.12 Evaluation of Dispositional & Situational

15.2.13 Influence of Computer Games

15.2.14 Influence of Television

15.2.15 Evaluation of Studies on Media

15.2.16 Desensitisation & Disinhibition

15.2.17 Cognitive Priming

15.2.18 End of Topic Test - Aggression: Social Psychology

16 Option 3: Forensic Psychology (A2 only)

16.1 Forensic Psychology (A2 only)

16.1.1 Defining Crime

16.1.2 Measuring Crime

16.1.3 Offender Profiling

16.1.4 Evaluation of Offender Profiling

16.1.5 John Duffy Case Study

16.1.6 Biological Explanations 1

16.1.7 Biological Explanations 2

16.1.8 Evaluation of the Biological Explanation

16.1.9 Cognitive Explanations

16.1.10 Moral Reasoning

16.1.11 Psychodynamic Explanation 1

16.1.12 Psychodynamic Explanation 2

16.1.13 End of Topic Test - Forensic Psychology 1

16.1.14 Differential Association Theory

16.1.15 Custodial Sentencing

16.1.16 Effects of Prison

16.1.17 Evaluation of the Effects of Prison

16.1.18 Recidivism

16.1.19 Behavioural Treatments & Therapies

16.1.20 Effectiveness of Behavioural Treatments

16.1.21 Restorative Justice

16.1.22 End of Topic Test - Forensic Psychology 2

17 Option 3: Addiction (A2 only)

17.1 Addiction (A2 only)

17.1.1 Definition

17.1.2 Brain Neurochemistry Explanation

17.1.3 Learning Theory Explanation

17.1.4 Evaluation of a Learning Theory Explanation

17.1.5 Cognitive Bias

17.1.6 Griffiths on Cognitive Bias

17.1.7 Evaluation of Cognitive Theory (A2 only)

17.1.8 End of Topic Test - Addiction 1

17.1.9 Gambling Addiction & Learning Theory

17.1.10 Social Influences on Addiction 1

17.1.11 Social Influences on Addiction 2

17.1.12 Personal Influences on Addiction

17.1.13 Genetic Explanations of Addiction

17.1.14 End of Topic Test - Addiction 2

17.2 Treating Addiction (A2 only)

17.2.1 Drug Therapy

17.2.2 Behavioural Interventions

17.2.3 Cognitive Behavioural Therapy

17.2.4 Theory of Reasoned Action

17.2.5 Theory of Planned Behaviour

17.2.6 Six Stage Model of Behaviour Change

17.2.7 End of Topic Test - Treating Addiction

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Methodology

• What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods

What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods

Published on May 8, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on November 20, 2023.

A case study is a detailed study of a specific subject, such as a person, group, place, event, organization, or phenomenon. Case studies are commonly used in social, educational, clinical, and business research.

A case study research design usually involves qualitative methods , but quantitative methods are sometimes also used. Case studies are good for describing , comparing, evaluating and understanding different aspects of a research problem .

Table of contents

When to do a case study, step 1: select a case, step 2: build a theoretical framework, step 3: collect your data, step 4: describe and analyze the case, other interesting articles.

A case study is an appropriate research design when you want to gain concrete, contextual, in-depth knowledge about a specific real-world subject. It allows you to explore the key characteristics, meanings, and implications of the case.

Case studies are often a good choice in a thesis or dissertation . They keep your project focused and manageable when you don’t have the time or resources to do large-scale research.

You might use just one complex case study where you explore a single subject in depth, or conduct multiple case studies to compare and illuminate different aspects of your research problem.

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Once you have developed your problem statement and research questions , you should be ready to choose the specific case that you want to focus on. A good case study should have the potential to:

• Provide new or unexpected insights into the subject
• Challenge or complicate existing assumptions and theories
• Propose practical courses of action to resolve a problem
• Open up new directions for future research

TipIf your research is more practical in nature and aims to simultaneously investigate an issue as you solve it, consider conducting action research instead.

Unlike quantitative or experimental research , a strong case study does not require a random or representative sample. In fact, case studies often deliberately focus on unusual, neglected, or outlying cases which may shed new light on the research problem.

Example of an outlying case studyIn the 1960s the town of Roseto, Pennsylvania was discovered to have extremely low rates of heart disease compared to the US average. It became an important case study for understanding previously neglected causes of heart disease.

However, you can also choose a more common or representative case to exemplify a particular category, experience or phenomenon.

Example of a representative case studyIn the 1920s, two sociologists used Muncie, Indiana as a case study of a typical American city that supposedly exemplified the changing culture of the US at the time.

While case studies focus more on concrete details than general theories, they should usually have some connection with theory in the field. This way the case study is not just an isolated description, but is integrated into existing knowledge about the topic. It might aim to:

• Exemplify a theory by showing how it explains the case under investigation
• Expand on a theory by uncovering new concepts and ideas that need to be incorporated
• Challenge a theory by exploring an outlier case that doesn’t fit with established assumptions

To ensure that your analysis of the case has a solid academic grounding, you should conduct a literature review of sources related to the topic and develop a theoretical framework . This means identifying key concepts and theories to guide your analysis and interpretation.

There are many different research methods you can use to collect data on your subject. Case studies tend to focus on qualitative data using methods such as interviews , observations , and analysis of primary and secondary sources (e.g., newspaper articles, photographs, official records). Sometimes a case study will also collect quantitative data.

Example of a mixed methods case studyFor a case study of a wind farm development in a rural area, you could collect quantitative data on employment rates and business revenue, collect qualitative data on local people’s perceptions and experiences, and analyze local and national media coverage of the development.

The aim is to gain as thorough an understanding as possible of the case and its context.

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In writing up the case study, you need to bring together all the relevant aspects to give as complete a picture as possible of the subject.

How you report your findings depends on the type of research you are doing. Some case studies are structured like a standard scientific paper or thesis , with separate sections or chapters for the methods , results and discussion .

Others are written in a more narrative style, aiming to explore the case from various angles and analyze its meanings and implications (for example, by using textual analysis or discourse analysis ).

In all cases, though, make sure to give contextual details about the case, connect it back to the literature and theory, and discuss how it fits into wider patterns or debates.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Normal distribution
• Degrees of freedom
• Null hypothesis
• Discourse analysis
• Control groups
• Mixed methods research
• Non-probability sampling
• Quantitative research
• Ecological validity

Research bias

• Rosenthal effect
• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Selection bias
• Negativity bias
• Status quo bias

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What Is a Case Study in Psychology?

Categories Research Methods

A case study is a research method used in psychology to investigate a particular individual, group, or situation in depth . It involves a detailed analysis of the subject, gathering information from various sources such as interviews, observations, and documents.

In a case study, researchers aim to understand the complexities and nuances of the subject under investigation. They explore the individual’s thoughts, feelings, behaviors, and experiences to gain insights into specific psychological phenomena. 

This type of research can provide great detail regarding a particular case, allowing researchers to examine rare or unique situations that may not be easily replicated in a laboratory setting. They offer a holistic view of the subject, considering various factors influencing their behavior or mental processes. 

By examining individual cases, researchers can generate hypotheses, develop theories, and contribute to the existing body of knowledge in psychology. Case studies are often utilized in clinical psychology, where they can provide valuable insights into the diagnosis, treatment, and outcomes of specific psychological disorders. 

Case studies offer a comprehensive and in-depth understanding of complex psychological phenomena, providing researchers with valuable information to inform theory, practice, and future research.

Table of Contents

Examples of Case Studies in Psychology

Case studies in psychology provide real-life examples that illustrate psychological concepts and theories. They offer a detailed analysis of specific individuals, groups, or situations, allowing researchers to understand psychological phenomena better. Here are a few examples of case studies in psychology: 

Phineas Gage

This famous case study explores the effects of a traumatic brain injury on personality and behavior. A railroad construction worker, Phineas Gage survived a severe brain injury that dramatically changed his personality.

This case study helped researchers understand the role of the frontal lobe in personality and social behavior. 

Little Albert

Conducted by behaviorist John B. Watson, the Little Albert case study aimed to demonstrate classical conditioning. In this study, a young boy named Albert was conditioned to fear a white rat by pairing it with a loud noise.

This case study provided insights into the process of fear conditioning and the impact of early experiences on behavior. 

Genie’s case study focused on a girl who experienced extreme social isolation and deprivation during her childhood. This study shed light on the critical period for language development and the effects of severe neglect on cognitive and social functioning. 

These case studies highlight the value of in-depth analysis and provide researchers with valuable insights into various psychological phenomena. By examining specific cases, psychologists can uncover unique aspects of human behavior and contribute to the field’s knowledge and understanding.

Types of Case Studies in Psychology

Psychology case studies come in various forms, each serving a specific purpose in research and analysis. Understanding the different types of case studies can help researchers choose the most appropriate approach. 

Descriptive Case Studies

These studies aim to describe a particular individual, group, or situation. Researchers use descriptive case studies to explore and document specific characteristics, behaviors, or experiences.

For example, a descriptive case study may examine the life and experiences of a person with a rare psychological disorder. 

Exploratory Case Studies

Exploratory case studies are conducted when there is limited existing knowledge or understanding of a particular phenomenon. Researchers use these studies to gather preliminary information and generate hypotheses for further investigation.

Exploratory case studies often involve in-depth interviews, observations, and analysis of existing data. 

Explanatory Case Studies

These studies aim to explain the causal relationship between variables or events. Researchers use these studies to understand why certain outcomes occur and to identify the underlying mechanisms or processes.

Explanatory case studies often involve comparing multiple cases to identify common patterns or factors. 

Instrumental Case Studies

Instrumental case studies focus on using a particular case to gain insights into a broader issue or theory. Researchers select cases that are representative or critical in understanding the phenomenon of interest.

Instrumental case studies help researchers develop or refine theories and contribute to the general knowledge in the field. 

By utilizing different types of case studies, psychologists can explore various aspects of human behavior and gain a deeper understanding of psychological phenomena. Each type of case study offers unique advantages and contributes to the overall body of knowledge in psychology.

How to Collect Data for a Case Study

There are a variety of ways that researchers gather the data they need for a case study. Some sources include:

• Directly observing the subject
• Collecting information from archival records
• Conducting interviews
• Examining artifacts related to the subject
• Examining documents that provide information about the subject

The way that this information is collected depends on the nature of the study itself

Prospective Research

In a prospective study, researchers observe the individual or group in question. These observations typically occur over a period of time and may be used to track the progress or progression of a phenomenon or treatment.

Retrospective Research

A retrospective case study involves looking back on a phenomenon. Researchers typically look at the outcome and then gather data to help them understand how the individual or group reached that point.

Benefits of a Case Study

Case studies offer several benefits in the field of psychology. They provide researchers with a unique opportunity to delve deep into specific individuals, groups, or situations, allowing for a comprehensive understanding of complex phenomena.

Case studies offer valuable insights that can inform theory development and practical applications by examining real-life examples. 

Complex Data

One of the key benefits of case studies is their ability to provide complex and detailed data. Researchers can gather in-depth information through various methods such as interviews, observations, and analysis of existing records.

This depth of data allows for a thorough exploration of the factors influencing behavior and the underlying mechanisms at play. 

Unique Data

Additionally, case studies allow researchers to study rare or unique cases that may not be easily replicated in experimental settings. This enables the examination of phenomena that are difficult to study through other psychology research methods . 

By focusing on specific cases, researchers can uncover patterns, identify causal relationships, and generate hypotheses for further investigation.

General Knowledge

Case studies can also contribute to the general knowledge of psychology by providing real-world examples that can be used to support or challenge existing theories. They offer a bridge between theory and practice, allowing researchers to apply theoretical concepts to real-life situations and vice versa. 

Case studies offer a range of benefits in psychology, including providing rich and detailed data, studying unique cases, and contributing to theory development. These benefits make case studies valuable in understanding human behavior and psychological phenomena.

Limitations of a Case Study

While case studies offer numerous benefits in the field of psychology, they also have certain limitations that researchers need to consider. Understanding these limitations is crucial for interpreting the findings and generalizing the results. 

Lack of Generalizability

One limitation of case studies is the issue of generalizability. Since case studies focus on specific individuals, groups, and situations, applying the findings to a larger population can be challenging. The unique characteristics and circumstances of the case may not be representative of the broader population, making it difficult to draw universal conclusions. 

Researcher bias is another possible limitation. The researcher’s subjective interpretation and personal beliefs can influence the data collection, analysis, and interpretation process. This bias can affect the objectivity and reliability of the findings, raising questions about the study’s validity. 

Case studies are often time-consuming and resource-intensive. They require extensive data collection, analysis, and interpretation, which can be lengthy. This can limit the number of cases that can be studied and may result in a smaller sample size, reducing the study’s statistical power. 

Case studies are retrospective in nature, relying on past events and experiences. This reliance on memory and self-reporting can introduce recall bias and inaccuracies in the data. Participants may forget or misinterpret certain details, leading to incomplete or unreliable information.

Despite these limitations, case studies remain a valuable research tool in psychology. By acknowledging and addressing these limitations, researchers can enhance the validity and reliability of their findings, contributing to a more comprehensive understanding of human behavior and psychological phenomena. 

While case studies have limitations, they remain valuable when researchers acknowledge and address these concerns, leading to more reliable and valid findings in psychology.

Alpi, K. M., & Evans, J. J. (2019). Distinguishing case study as a research method from case reports as a publication type. Journal of the Medical Library Association , 107(1). https://doi.org/10.5195/jmla.2019.615

Crowe, S., Cresswell, K., Robertson, A., Huby, G., Avery, A., & Sheikh, A. (2011). The case study approach. BMC Medical Research Methodology , 11(1), 100. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2288-11-100

Paparini, S., Green, J., Papoutsi, C., Murdoch, J., Petticrew, M., Greenhalgh, T., Hanckel, B., & Shaw, S. (2020). Case study research for better evaluations of complex interventions: Rationale and challenges. BMC Medicine , 18(1), 301. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12916-020-01777-6

Willemsen, J. (2023). What is preventing psychotherapy case studies from having a greater impact on evidence-based practice, and how to address the challenges? Frontiers in Psychiatry , 13, 1101090. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2022.1101090

Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research and Applications: Design and Methods . United States, SAGE Publications, 2017.

Psychology Case Study Examples: A Deep Dive into Real-life Scenarios

Peeling back the layers of the human mind is no easy task, but psychology case studies can help us do just that. Through these detailed analyses, we’re able to gain a deeper understanding of human behavior, emotions, and cognitive processes. I’ve always found it fascinating how a single person’s experience can shed light on broader psychological principles.

Over the years, psychologists have conducted numerous case studies—each with their own unique insights and implications. These investigations range from Phineas Gage’s accidental lobotomy to Genie Wiley’s tragic tale of isolation. Such examples not only enlighten us about specific disorders or occurrences but also continue to shape our overall understanding of psychology .

As we delve into some noteworthy examples , I assure you’ll appreciate how varied and intricate the field of psychology truly is. Whether you’re a budding psychologist or simply an eager learner, brace yourself for an intriguing exploration into the intricacies of the human psyche.

Understanding Psychology Case Studies

Diving headfirst into the world of psychology, it’s easy to come upon a valuable tool used by psychologists and researchers alike – case studies. I’m here to shed some light on these fascinating tools.

Psychology case studies, for those unfamiliar with them, are in-depth investigations carried out to gain a profound understanding of the subject – whether it’s an individual, group or phenomenon. They’re powerful because they provide detailed insights that other research methods might miss.

Let me share a few examples to clarify this concept further:

• One notable example is Freud’s study on Little Hans. This case study explored a 5-year-old boy’s fear of horses and related it back to Freud’s theories about psychosexual stages.
• Another classic example is Genie Wiley (a pseudonym), a feral child who was subjected to severe social isolation during her early years. Her heartbreaking story provided invaluable insights into language acquisition and critical periods in development.

You see, what sets psychology case studies apart is their focus on the ‘why’ and ‘how’. While surveys or experiments might tell us ‘what’, they often don’t dig deep enough into the inner workings behind human behavior.

It’s important though not to take these psychology case studies at face value. As enlightening as they can be, we must remember that they usually focus on one specific instance or individual. Thus, generalizing findings from single-case studies should be done cautiously.

To illustrate my point using numbers: let’s say we have 1 million people suffering from condition X worldwide; if only 20 unique cases have been studied so far (which would be quite typical for rare conditions), then our understanding is based on just 0.002% of the total cases! That’s why multiple sources and types of research are vital when trying to understand complex psychological phenomena fully.

In the grand scheme of things, psychology case studies are just one piece of the puzzle – albeit an essential one. They provide rich, detailed data that can form the foundation for further research and understanding. As we delve deeper into this fascinating field, it’s crucial to appreciate all the tools at our disposal – from surveys and experiments to these insightful case studies.

Importance of Case Studies in Psychology

I’ve always been fascinated by the human mind, and if you’re here, I bet you are too. Let’s dive right into why case studies play such a pivotal role in psychology.

One of the key reasons they matter so much is because they provide detailed insights into specific psychological phenomena. Unlike other research methods that might use large samples but only offer surface-level findings, case studies allow us to study complex behaviors, disorders, and even treatments at an intimate level. They often serve as a catalyst for new theories or help refine existing ones.

To illustrate this point, let’s look at one of psychology’s most famous case studies – Phineas Gage. He was a railroad construction foreman who survived a severe brain injury when an iron rod shot through his skull during an explosion in 1848. The dramatic personality changes he experienced after his accident led to significant advancements in our understanding of the brain’s role in personality and behavior.

Moreover, it’s worth noting that some rare conditions can only be studied through individual cases due to their uncommon nature. For instance, consider Genie Wiley – a girl discovered at age 13 having spent most of her life locked away from society by her parents. Her tragic story gave psychologists valuable insights into language acquisition and critical periods for learning.

Finally yet importantly, case studies also have practical applications for clinicians and therapists. Studying real-life examples can inform treatment plans and provide guidance on how theoretical concepts might apply to actual client situations.

• Detailed insights: Case studies offer comprehensive views on specific psychological phenomena.
• Catalyst for new theories: Real-life scenarios help shape our understanding of psychology .
• Study rare conditions: Unique cases can offer invaluable lessons about uncommon disorders.
• Practical applications: Clinicians benefit from studying real-world examples.

In short (but without wrapping up), it’s clear that case studies hold immense value within psychology – they illuminate what textbooks often can’t, offering a more nuanced understanding of human behavior.

Different Types of Psychology Case Studies

Diving headfirst into the world of psychology, I can’t help but be fascinated by the myriad types of case studies that revolve around this subject. Let’s take a closer look at some of them.

Firstly, we’ve got what’s known as ‘Explanatory Case Studies’. These are often used when a researcher wants to clarify complex phenomena or concepts. For example, a psychologist might use an explanatory case study to explore the reasons behind aggressive behavior in children.

Second on our list are ‘Exploratory Case Studies’, typically utilized when new and unexplored areas of research come up. They’re like pioneers; they pave the way for future studies. In psychological terms, exploratory case studies could be conducted to investigate emerging mental health conditions or under-researched therapeutic approaches.

Next up are ‘Descriptive Case Studies’. As the name suggests, these focus on depicting comprehensive and detailed profiles about a particular individual, group, or event within its natural context. A well-known example would be Sigmund Freud’s analysis of “Anna O”, which provided unique insights into hysteria.

Then there are ‘Intrinsic Case Studies’, which delve deep into one specific case because it is intrinsically interesting or unique in some way. It’s sorta like shining a spotlight onto an exceptional phenomenon. An instance would be studying savants—individuals with extraordinary abilities despite significant mental disabilities.

Lastly, we have ‘Instrumental Case Studies’. These aren’t focused on understanding a particular case per se but use it as an instrument to understand something else altogether—a bit like using one puzzle piece to make sense of the whole picture!

So there you have it! From explanatory to instrumental, each type serves its own unique purpose and adds another intriguing layer to our understanding of human behavior and cognition.

Exploring Real-Life Psychology Case Study Examples

Let’s roll up our sleeves and delve into some real-life psychology case study examples. By digging deep, we can glean valuable insights from these studies that have significantly contributed to our understanding of human behavior and mental processes.

First off, let me share the fascinating case of Phineas Gage. This gentleman was a 19th-century railroad construction foreman who survived an accident where a large iron rod was accidentally driven through his skull, damaging his frontal lobes. Astonishingly, he could walk and talk immediately after the accident but underwent dramatic personality changes, becoming impulsive and irresponsible. This case is often referenced in discussions about brain injury and personality change.

Next on my list is Genie Wiley’s heart-wrenching story. She was a victim of severe abuse and neglect resulting in her being socially isolated until she was 13 years old. Due to this horrific experience, Genie couldn’t acquire language skills typically as other children would do during their developmental stages. Her tragic story offers invaluable insight into the critical periods for language development in children.

Then there’s ‘Little Hans’, a classic Freudian case that delves into child psychology. At just five years old, Little Hans developed an irrational fear of horses -or so it seemed- which Sigmund Freud interpreted as symbolic anxiety stemming from suppressed sexual desires towards his mother—quite an interpretation! The study gave us Freud’s Oedipus Complex theory.

Lastly, I’d like to mention Patient H.M., an individual who became amnesiac following surgery to control seizures by removing parts of his hippocampus bilaterally. His inability to form new memories post-operation shed light on how different areas of our brains contribute to memory formation.

Each one of these real-life psychology case studies gives us a unique window into understanding complex human behaviors better – whether it’s dissecting the role our brain plays in shaping personality or unraveling the mysteries of fear, language acquisition, and memory.

How to Analyze a Psychology Case Study

Diving headfirst into a psychology case study, I understand it can seem like an intimidating task. But don’t worry, I’m here to guide you through the process.

First off, it’s essential to go through the case study thoroughly. Read it multiple times if needed. Each reading will likely reveal new information or perspectives you may have missed initially. Look out for any patterns or inconsistencies in the subject’s behavior and make note of them.

Next on your agenda should be understanding the theoretical frameworks that might be applicable in this scenario. Is there a cognitive-behavioral approach at play? Or does psychoanalysis provide better insights? Comparing these theories with observed behavior and symptoms can help shed light on underlying psychological issues.

Now, let’s talk data interpretation. If your case study includes raw data like surveys or diagnostic tests results, you’ll need to analyze them carefully. Here are some steps that could help:

• Identify what each piece of data represents
• Look for correlations between different pieces of data
• Compute statistics (mean, median, mode) if necessary
• Use graphs or charts for visual representation

Keep in mind; interpreting raw data requires both statistical knowledge and intuition about human behavior.

Finally, drafting conclusions is key in analyzing a psychology case study. Based on your observations, evaluations of theoretical approaches and interpretations of any given data – what do you conclude about the subject’s mental health status? Remember not to jump to conclusions hastily but instead base them solidly on evidence from your analysis.

In all this journey of analysis remember one thing: every person is unique and so are their experiences! So while theories and previous studies guide us, they never define an individual completely.

Applying Lessons from Psychology Case Studies

Let’s dive into how we can apply the lessons learned from psychology case studies. If you’ve ever studied psychology, you’ll know that case studies offer rich insights. They shed light on human behavior, mental health issues, and therapeutic techniques. But it’s not just about understanding theory. It’s also about implementing these valuable lessons in real-world situations.

One of the most famous psychological case studies is Phineas Gage’s story. This 19th-century railroad worker survived a severe brain injury which dramatically altered his personality. From this study, we gained crucial insight into how different brain areas are responsible for various aspects of our personality and behavior.

• Lesson: Recognizing that damage to specific brain areas can result in personality changes, enabling us to better understand certain mental conditions.

Sigmund Freud’s work with a patient known as ‘Anna O.’ is another landmark psychology case study. Anna displayed what was then called hysteria – symptoms included hallucinations and disturbances in speech and physical coordination – which Freud linked back to repressed memories of traumatic events.

• Lesson: The importance of exploring an individual’s history for understanding their current psychological problems – a principle at the heart of psychoanalysis.

Then there’s Genie Wiley’s case – a girl who suffered extreme neglect resulting in impaired social and linguistic development. Researchers used her tragic circumstances as an opportunity to explore theories around language acquisition and socialization.

• Lesson: Reinforcing the critical role early childhood experiences play in shaping cognitive development.

Lastly, let’s consider the Stanford Prison Experiment led by Philip Zimbardo examining how people conform to societal roles even when they lead to immoral actions.

• Lesson: Highlighting that situational forces can drastically impact human behavior beyond personal characteristics or morality.

These examples demonstrate that psychology case studies aren’t just academic exercises isolated from daily life. Instead, they provide profound lessons that help us make sense of complex human behaviors, mental health issues, and therapeutic strategies. By understanding these studies, we’re better equipped to apply their lessons in our own lives – whether it’s navigating personal relationships, working with diverse teams at work or even self-improvement.

Challenges and Critiques of Psychological Case Studies

Delving into the world of psychological case studies, it’s not all rosy. Sure, they offer an in-depth understanding of individual behavior and mental processes. Yet, they’re not without their share of challenges and criticisms.

One common critique is the lack of generalizability. Each case study is unique to its subject. We can’t always apply what we learn from one person to everyone else. I’ve come across instances where results varied dramatically between similar subjects, highlighting the inherent unpredictability in human behavior.

Another challenge lies within ethical boundaries. Often, sensitive information surfaces during these studies that could potentially harm the subject if disclosed improperly. To put it plainly, maintaining confidentiality while delivering a comprehensive account isn’t always easy.

Distortion due to subjective interpretations also poses substantial difficulties for psychologists conducting case studies. The researcher’s own bias may color their observations and conclusions – leading to skewed outcomes or misleading findings.

Moreover, there’s an ongoing debate about the scientific validity of case studies because they rely heavily on qualitative data rather than quantitative analysis. Some argue this makes them less reliable or objective when compared with other research methods such as experiments or surveys.

To summarize:

• Lack of generalizability
• Ethical dilemmas concerning privacy
• Potential distortion through subjective interpretation
• Questions about scientific validity

While these critiques present significant challenges, they do not diminish the value that psychological case studies bring to our understanding of human behavior and mental health struggles.

Conclusion: The Impact of Case Studies in Understanding Human Behavior

Case studies play a pivotal role in shedding light on human behavior. Throughout this article, I’ve discussed numerous examples that illustrate just how powerful these studies can be. Yet it’s the impact they have on our understanding of human psychology where their true value lies.

Take for instance the iconic study of Phineas Gage. It was through his tragic accident and subsequent personality change that we began to grasp the profound influence our frontal lobes have on our behavior. Without such a case study, we might still be in the dark about this crucial aspect of our neurology.

Let’s also consider Genie, the feral child who showed us the critical importance of social interaction during early development. Her heartbreaking story underscores just how vital appropriate nurturing is for healthy mental and emotional growth.

Here are some key takeaways from these case studies:

• Our brain structure significantly influences our behavior.
• Social interaction during formative years is vital for normal psychological development.
• Studying individual cases can reveal universal truths about human nature.

What stands out though, is not merely what these case studies teach us individually but collectively. They remind us that each person constitutes a unique combination of various factors—biological, psychological, and environmental—that shape their behavior.

One cannot overstate the significance of case studies in psychology—they are more than mere stories or isolated incidents; they’re windows into the complexities and nuances of human nature itself.

In wrapping up, I’d say that while statistics give us patterns and trends to understand groups, it’s these detailed narratives offered by case studies that help us comprehend individuals’ unique experiences within those groups—making them an invaluable part of psychological research.

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A-Level Psychology Revision Notes

Explore the fascinating realm of psychology with our A-Level Psychology revision notes. Categorised by topic and exam board, you can use these notes to set you on the path to exam success.

AQA Psychology Revision Notes

Biopsychology, forensic psychology, issues and debates, psychopathology, relationships and schizophrenia, social influence, how can i effectively revise for the a-level psychology exam when there's so much content to cover.

By testing yourself on key terms, theories, and studies you will be able to recall the information better as you are actively engaging in the information rather than just reading a textbook. You can create concept maps or flowcharts to connect related ideas and concepts. Prioritize topics based on their weight in the exam and allocate more time to challenging areas.

What are some tips for writing high-scoring essays in A-Level Psychology?

Start with a clear introduction and thesis statement, followed by structured paragraphs presenting your arguments and evidence. Use the PEEEL method (Point, Evidence, Explain, Evaluate, Link) to analyze and critique theories or studies. For instance, when discussing the reliability of psychological research, evaluate the methods used, potential biases, and their impact on findings.

How can I remember the key psychologists and their contributions for the exam?

You can create mnemonic devices or acronyms. For instance, to remember Piaget's stages of cognitive development, use the acronym "SACOP" (Sensorimotor, Preoperational, Concrete Operational, Formal Operational) as a memory aid. Alternatively, you can use a visualization technique by putting sticky notes around a room with key points. This will help you remember where each revision point is in relation to a place in the room.

What's the best approach to mastering research methods and statistics in A-Level Psychology?

Practice is key. Work through sample problems, analyze research papers, and engage in hands-on data collection and analysis.

How can I effectively apply psychological theories to real-life scenarios in the exam?

It is important to develop the skill of psychological application by regularly connecting theories to current events, personal experiences, or case studies. For example, when discussing the bystander effect, relate it to a real-life event like the Kitty Genovese case, showcasing your ability to apply psychological concepts to practical situations.

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Case Studies

March 7, 2021 - paper 2 psychology in context | research methods.

Description, AO1 of Case Studies:

(1)  POINT:  A strength of a case study is that it produces rich, detailed data.  EXAMPLE:  For example, a case study of an individual’s life is incredibly detailed and may highlight a number of important experiences that could have combined to cause them to become mentally ill.  EVALUATION:  This is positive because information that may be overlooked using other methods is likely to be identified.

(1)  POINT:  A weakness of a case study is that it is difficult to generalise the results.  EXAMPLE:  For example, a case study of an individual person might not be representative of anyone else because experiences are so individual that another person may not react in the same way.  EVALUATION:  This is a problem as it’s difficult to generalise to the rest of the population (low popultation validity) as each case has unique characteristics.

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AQA A Level Psychology | Research Studies List

Last updated 10 Apr 2024

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Download this comprehensive list of studies that you can use throughout your AQA A-Level Psychology course, and to focus your exam revision. The download also includes an editable document.

For each topic on papers 1, 2, and 3, we list studies that are compulsory and named on the specification and point you towards additional studies that may be useful for your evaluation.

Download your AQA A Level Psychology Research Studies List

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Doing a Systematic Review: A Student’s Guide

Saul Mcleod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul Mcleod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

Learn about our Editorial Process

Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

What is Systematic Review?

A systematic review is a comprehensive, structured analysis of existing research on a specific topic. It uses predefined criteria to identify, evaluate, and synthesize relevant studies, aiming to provide an unbiased summary of the current evidence.

The explicit and systematic approach of a systematic review distinguishes it from traditional reviews and commentaries.

Here are some key ways that systematic reviews differ from narrative reviews:

• Goals: Narrative reviews provide a summary or overview of a topic, while systematic reviews answer a focused review question.
• Sources of Literature: Narrative reviews often use a non-exhaustive and unstated body of literature, which can lead to publication bias. Systematic reviews consider a list of databases, grey literature, and other sources.
• Selection Criteria: Narrative reviews usually use subjective or no selection criteria, which can lead to selection bias. Systematic reviews have a clear and explicit selection process.
• Appraisal of Study Quality: Narrative reviews vary in their evaluation of study quality. Systematic reviews use standard checklists for a rigorous appraisal of study quality.

Systematic reviews are time-intensive and need a research team with multiple skills and contributions. There are some cases where systematic reviews are unable to meet the necessary objectives of the review question.

In these cases, scoping reviews (which are sometimes called scoping exercises/scoping studies) may be more useful to consider.

Scoping reviews are different from systematic reviews because they may not include a mandatory critical appraisal of the included studies or synthesize the findings from individual studies.

Assessing The Need For A Systematic Review

When assessing the need for a systematic review, one must first check if any existing or ongoing reviews already exist and determine if a new review is justified.

Scoping reviews frequently serve as preliminary steps before conducting full systematic reviews. They help assess the available literature’s breadth, identify key concepts, and determine the feasibility of a more comprehensive review.

This initial exploration guides researchers in refining their approach for subsequent in-depth analyses.

This process should begin by searching relevant databases.

Resources to consider searching include:

• NICE : National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence
• Campbell Library of Systematic Reviews for reviews in education, crime and justice, and social welfare
• EPPI : Evidence for Policy and Practice Information Centre, particularly their database of systematic and non-systematic reviews of public health interventions (DoPHER)
• MEDLINE : Primarily covers the medical domain, making it a primary resource for systematic reviews concerning healthcare interventions
• PsycINFO : For research in psychology, psychiatry, behavioral sciences, and social sciences
• Cochrane Library (specifically CDSR) : Focuses on systematic reviews of health care interventions, providing regularly updated and critically appraised reviews

If an existing review addressing the question of interest is found, its quality should be assessed to determine its suitability for guiding policy and practice.

If a high-quality, relevant review is located, but its completion date is some time ago, updating the review might be warranted.

Assessing current relevance is vital, especially in rapidly evolving research fields. Collaboration with the original research team might be beneficial during the update process, as they could provide access to their data.

If the review is deemed to be of adequate quality and remains relevant, undertaking another systematic review may not be necessary.

When a new systematic review or an update is deemed necessary, the subsequent step involves establishing a review team and potentially an advisory group, who will then develop the review protocol.

How To Conduct A Systematic Review

PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) is a reporting guideline designed to improve the transparency and completeness of systematic review reporting.

PRISMA was created to tackle the issue of inadequate reporting often found in systematic reviews:

• Checklist : PRISMA features a 27-item checklist covering all aspects of a systematic review, from the rationale and objectives to the synthesis of findings and discussion of limitations. Each checklist item is accompanied by detailed reporting recommendations in an Explanation and Elaboration document .
• Flow Diagram : PRISMA also includes a flow diagram to visually represent the study selection process, offering a clear, standardized way to illustrate how researchers arrived at the final set of included studies.

Step 1: write a research protocol

A protocol in the context of systematic reviews is a detailed plan that outlines the methodology to be employed throughout the review process.

The protocol serves as a roadmap, guiding researchers through each stage of the review in a transparent and replicable manner.

This document should provide specific details about every stage of the research process, including the methodology for identifying, selecting, and analyzing relevant studies.

For example, the protocol should specify search strategies for relevant studies, including whether the search will encompass unpublished works.

The protocol should be created before beginning the research process to ensure transparency and reproducibility.

This pre-determined plan ensures that decisions made during the review are objective and free from bias, as they are based on pre-established criteria.

Protocol modifications are sometimes necessary during systematic reviews. While adhering to the protocol is crucial for minimizing bias, there are instances where modifications are justified. For instance, a deeper understanding of the research question that emerges from examining primary research might necessitate changes to the protocol.

Systematic reviews should be registered at inception (at the protocol stage) for these reasons:

• To help avoid unplanned duplication
• To enable the comparison of reported review methods with what was planned in the protocol

This registration prevents duplication (research waste) and makes the process easy when the full systematic review is sent for publication.

PROSPERO is an international database of prospectively registered systematic reviews in health and social care. Non-Cochrane protocols should be registered on PROSPERO.

Research Protocol

Rasika Jayasekara, Nicholas Procter. The effects of cognitive behaviour therapy for major depression in older adults: a systematic review. PROSPERO 2012 CRD42012003151 Available from:  https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/display_record.php?ID=CRD42012003151

Review question

How effective is CBT compared with other interventions, placebo or standard treatment in achieving relapse prevention and improving mental status for older adults with major depression?

The search strategy aims to find both published and unpublished studies and publications. The search will be limited to English language papers published from 2002 to 2012.

A three-step search strategy will be developed using MeSH terminology and keywords to ensure that all materials relevant to the review are captured.

An initial limited search of MEDLINE and CINAHL will be undertaken followed by an analysis of the text words contained in the title and abstract, and of the index terms used to describe the article. A second search using all identified keywords and index terms will then be undertaken.

Thirdly, the reference list of all identified reports and articles will be searched for additional studies.

The databases to be searched included:

• Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials
• Controlled Trials
• Current Contents

The search for unpublished studies will include:

• Digital Dissertations (Proquest)
• Conference Proceedings

Experts in the field will be contacted for ongoing and unpublished trials. Experts will be identified through journal publications.

Types of study to be included

All randomised controlled trials (RCTs) assessing the effectiveness of CBT as a treatment for older adults with major depression when compared to standard care, specific medication, other therapies and no intervention will be considered.

In the absence of RCTs, other research designs such as quasi-experimental studies, case-controlled studies and cohort studies will be examined. However, descriptive studies and expert opinion will be excluded.

Condition or domain being studied

Major depression is diagnosed according to DSM IV or ICD 10 criteria.

Where trials fail to employ diagnostic criteria, the severity of depression will be described by the use of standardised rating scales, including the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale, Montgomery and Asberg Rating Scale and the Geriatric Depression Rating Scale.

The trials including participants with an explicit diagnosis of dementia or Parkinson’s disease and other mental illnesses will be excluded.

The review will include trials conducted in primary, secondary, community, nursing homes and in-patient settings.

Participants/population

The review will include trials in which patients are described as elderly, geriatric, or older adults, or in which all patients will be aged 55 or over (many North American trials of older adult populations use a cut-off of 55 years).

The review will include trials with subjects of either sex. Where possible, participants will be categorised as community or long term care residents.

Intervention(s), exposure(s)

The review will focus on interventions designed to assess the effects of CBT for older adults with major depression.

The label cognitive behavioural therapy has been applied to a variety of interventions and, accordingly, it is difficult to provide a single, unambiguous definition.

In order to be classified as CBT the intervention must clearly demonstrate the following components:

• the intervention involves the recipient establishing links between their thoughts, feelings and actions with respect to the target symptom;
• the intervention involves the correction of the person’s misperceptions, irrational beliefs and reasoning biases related to the target symptom.
• – the recipient monitoring his or her own thoughts, feelings and behaviours with respect to the target symptom; and
• – the promotion of alternative ways of coping with the target symptom.

In addition, all therapies that do not meet these criteria (or that provide insufficient information) but are labelled as ‘CBT’ or ‘Cognitive Therapy’ will be included as ‘less well defined’ CBT.

Comparator(s)/control

other interventions, placebo or standard treatment

Main outcome(s)

Primary outcomes

• Depression level as assessed by Hamilton Depression Rating Scale, Montgomery or Asberg Rating Scale or the Geriatric Depression Rating Scale.
• Relapse (as defined in the individual studies)
• Death (sudden, unexpected death or suicide).
• Psychological well being (as defined in the individual studies)

Measures of effect

The review will categorise outcomes into those measured in the shorter term (within 12 weeks of the onset of therapy), medium term (within 13 to 26 weeks of the onset of therapy) and longer term (over 26 weeks since the onset of therapy).

Additional outcome(s)

Secondary outcomes

• Mental state
• Quality of life
• Social functioning
• Hospital readmission
• Unexpected or unwanted effect (adverse effects), such as anxiety, depression and dependence on the relationship with the therapist

Data extraction (selection and coding)

Data will be extracted from papers included in the review using JBI-MAStARI. In this stage, any relevant studies will be extracted in relation to their population, interventions, study methods and outcomes.

Where data are missing or unclear, authors will be contacted to obtain information.

Risk of bias (quality) assessment

All papers selected for retrieval will be assessed by two independent reviewers for methodological validity prior to inclusion in the review.

Since the review will evaluate the experimental studies only, The Joanna Briggs Institute Meta Analysis of Statistics Assessment and Review Instrument (JBI-MAStARI) will be used to evaluate each study’s methodological validity.

If there is a disagreement between the two reviewers, there will be a discussion with the third reviewer to solve the dissimilarity.

Strategy for data synthesis

Where possible quantitative research study results will be pooled in statistical meta-analysis using Review Manager Software from the Cochrane Collaboration.

Odds ratio (for categorical outcome data) or standardised mean differences (for continuous data) and their 95% confidence intervals will be calculated for each study.

Heterogeneity will be assessed using the standard Chi-square. Where statistical pooling is not possible the findings will be presented in narrative form.

Step 2: formulate a research question 

Developing a focused research question is crucial for a systematic review, as it underpins every stage of the review process.

The question defines the review’s nature and scope, guides the identification of relevant studies, and shapes the data extraction and synthesis processes.

It’s essential that the research question is answerable and clearly stated in the review protocol, ensuring that the review’s boundaries are well-defined.

A narrow question may limit the number of relevant studies and generalizability, while a broad question can make it challenging to reach specific conclusions.

PICO Framework

The PICO framework is a model for creating focused clinical research questions. The acronym PICO stands for:

• P opulation/Patient/Problem: This element defines the specific group of people the research question pertains to.
• I ntervention: This is the treatment, test, or exposure being considered for the population.
• C omparison: This is the alternative intervention or control group against which the intervention is being compared.
• O utcome: This element specifies the results or effects of the interventions being investigated

Using the PICO format when designing research helps to minimize bias because the questions and methods of the review are formulated before reviewing any literature.

The PICO elements are also helpful in defining the inclusion criteria used to select sources for the systematic review.

The PICO framework is commonly employed in systematic reviews that primarily analyze data from randomized controlled trials .

Not every element of PICO is required for every research question. For instance, it is not always necessary to have a comparison

Types of questions that can be answered using PICO:

“In patients with a recent acute stroke (less than 6 weeks) with reduced mobility ( P ), is any specific physiotherapy approach ( I ) more beneficial than no physiotherapy ( C ) at improving independence in activities of daily living and gait speed ( O )?

“For women who have experienced domestic violence ( P ), how effective are advocacy programmes ( I ) compared to other treatments ( C ) on improving the quality of life ( O )?”

Etiology/Harm

Are women with a history of pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) ( P ) at higher risk for gynecological cancers ( O ) than women with no history of PID ( C )?

Among asymptomatic adults at low risk of colon cancer ( P ), is fecal immunochemical testing (FIT) ( I ) as sensitive and specific for diagnosing colon cancer ( O ) as colonoscopy ( C )?

Among adults with pneumonia ( P ), do those with chronic kidney disease (CKD) ( I ) have a higher mortality rate ( O ) than those without CKD ( C )?

Alternative Frameworks

• PICOCS : This framework, used in public health research, adds a “ C ontext” element to the PICO framework. This is useful for examining how the environment or setting in which an intervention is delivered might influence its effectiveness.
• PICOC : This framework expands on PICO by incorporating “ C osts” as an element of the research question. It is particularly relevant to research questions involving economic evaluations of interventions.
• ECLIPSE : E xpectations, C lient group, L ocation, I mpact, P rofessionals involved, S ervice, and E valuation. It is a mnemonic device designed to aid in searching for health policy and management information.
• PEO : This acronym, standing for P atient, E xposure, and O utcome, is a variation of PICO used when the research question focuses on the relationship between exposure to a risk factor and a specific outcome.
• PIRD : This acronym stands for P opulation, I ndex Test, R eference Test, and D iagnosis of Interest, guiding research questions that focus on evaluating the diagnostic accuracy of a particular test.
• PFO : This acronym, representing P opulation, P rognostic F actors, and O utcome, is tailored for research questions that aim to investigate the relationship between specific prognostic factors and a particular health outcome.
• SDMO : This framework, which stands for S tudies, D ata, M ethods, and O utcomes, assists in structuring research questions focused on methodological aspects of research, examining the impact of different research methods or designs on the quality of research findings.

Step 3: Search Strategy

PRISMA  (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses) provide appropriate guidance for reporting quantitative literature searches.

Present the full search strategies for all databases, registers and websites, including any filters and limits used. PRISMA 2020 Checklist

A search strategy is a comprehensive and reproducible plan for identifying all relevant research studies that address a specific research question.

This systematic approach to searching helps minimize bias and distinguishes systematic reviews from other types of literature reviews.

It’s important to be transparent about the search strategy and document all decisions for auditability. The goal is to identify all potentially relevant studies for consideration.

Here’s a breakdown of a search strategy:

Search String Construction

It is recommended to consult topic experts on the review team and advisory board in order to create as complete a list of search terms as possible for each concept.

To retrieve the most relevant results, a search string is used. This string is made up of:

• Keywords:  Search terms should be relevant to the subject areas of the research question and should be identified for all components of the research question (e.g., Population, Intervention, Comparator, and Outcomes – PICO). Using relevant keywords helps minimize irrelevant search returns. Sources such as dictionaries, textbooks, and published articles can help identify appropriate keywords.
• Synonyms: These are words or phrases with similar meanings to the keywords, as authors may use different terms to describe the same concepts. Including synonyms helps cover variations in terminology and increases the chances of finding all relevant studies. For example, a drug intervention may be referred to by its generic name or by one of its several proprietary names.
• Truncation symbols : These broaden the search by capturing variations of a keyword. They function by locating every word that begins with a specific root. For example, if a user was researching interventions for smoking, they might use a truncation symbol to search for “smok*” to retrieve records with the words “smoke,” “smoker,” “smoking,” or “smokes.” This can save time and effort by eliminating the need to input every variation of a word into a database.
• Boolean operators: The use of Boolean operators (AND/OR/NEAR/NOT) helps to combine these terms effectively, ensuring that the search strategy is both sensitive and specific. For instance, using “AND” narrows the search to include only results containing both terms, while “OR” expands it to include results containing either term.

Information Sources

The primary goal is to find all published and unpublished studies that meet the predefined criteria of the research question. This includes considering various sources beyond typical databases

Information sources for systematic reviews can include a wide range of resources like scholarly databases, unpublished literature, conference papers, books, and even expert consultations.

Specify all databases, registers, websites, organisations, reference lists and other sources searched or consulted to identify studies. Specify the date when each source was last searched or consulted. PRISMA 2020 Checklist

An exhaustive, systematic search strategy is developed with the assistance of an expert librarian.

• Electronic Databases : Searches should include seven key databases: CINAHL, Medline, APA PsycArticles, Psychology and Behavioral Sciences Collection, APA PsycInfo, SocINDEX with Full Text, and Web of Science: Core Collections.
• Grey Literature : In addition to databases, forensic or ‘expansive’ searches can be conducted. This includes: grey literature database searches (e.g.  OpenGrey , WorldCat , Ethos ),  conference proceedings, unpublished reports, theses  , clinical trial databases , searches by names of authors of relevant publications. Independent research bodies may also be good sources of material, e.g. Centre for Research in Ethnic Relations , Joseph Rowntree Foundation , Carers UK .
• Citation Searching : Reference lists often lead to highly cited and influential papers in the field, providing valuable context and background information for the review.
• Handsearching : Manually searching through specific journals or conference proceedings page-by-page is another way to ensure all relevant studies are captured, particularly those not yet indexed in databases.
• Contacting Experts : Reaching out to researchers or experts in the field can provide access to unpublished data or ongoing research not yet publicly available.

It is important to note that this may not be an exhaustive list of all potential databases.

A systematic computerized search was performed for publications that appeared between 1974 and 2018 in English language journals. Four databases were searched including PsychINFO, Embase, OVOID MEDLINE, and AMED. The databases were searched with combinations of search terms relating to attachment (“attachment” OR “working model” OR “safe haven” OR “secure base” OR “felt security”) AND romantic couples (“dyad” OR “couple” OR “spous” OR “partner” OR “romantic” OR “wife” OR “husband” OR “close relationship” OR “interpersonal” OR “intimate” OR “mari”) AND social support (“support prov” OR “caregiving” OR “support giv” OR “social support” OR “enacted support” OR “support received” OR “receiv* support” OR “prov support” OR “dyadic coping” OR “interpersonal coping” OR “collaborative coping” OR “help‐seeking” OR “emotional support” OR “tangible support” OR “instrumental support” OR “perceived support” OR “responsive” OR “buffer” OR “partner support” OR “Support avail*” OR “available support”). The reference lists of the retrieved studies were checked to find other relevant publications, which were not identified in the computerized database searches.

Inclusion Criteria

Specify the inclusion and exclusion criteria for the review. PRISMA 2020 Checklist

Before beginning the literature search, researchers should establish clear eligibility criteria for study inclusion.

Inclusion criteria are used to select studies for a systematic review and should be based on the study’s research method and PICO elements.

To maintain transparency and minimize bias, eligibility criteria for study inclusion should be established a priori. Ideally, researchers should aim to include only high-quality randomized controlled trials that adhere to the intention-to-treat principle.

The selection of studies should not be arbitrary, and the rationale behind inclusion and exclusion criteria should be clearly articulated in the research protocol.

When specifying the inclusion and exclusion criteria, consider the following aspects:

• Intervention Characteristics: Researchers might decide that, in order to be included in the review, an intervention must have specific characteristics. They might require the intervention to last for a certain length of time, or they might determine that only interventions with a specific theoretical basis are appropriate for their review.
• Population Characteristics: A systematic review might focus on the effects of an intervention for a specific population. For instance, researchers might choose to focus on studies that included only nurses or physicians.
• Outcome Measures: Researchers might choose to include only studies that used outcome measures that met a specific standard.
• Age of Participants: If a systematic review is examining the effects of a treatment or intervention for children, the authors of the review will likely choose to exclude any studies that did not include children in the target age range.
• Diagnostic Status of Participants: Researchers conducting a systematic review of treatments for anxiety will likely exclude any studies where the participants were not diagnosed with an anxiety disorder.
• Study Design: Researchers might determine that only studies that used a particular research design, such as a randomized controlled trial, will be included in the review.
• Control Group: In a systematic review of an intervention, researchers might choose to include only studies that included certain types of control groups, such as a waiting list control or another type of intervention.
• Publication status : Decide whether only published studies will be included or if unpublished works, such as dissertations or conference proceedings, will also be considered.

Studies that met the following criteria were included: (a) empirical studies of couples (of any gender) who are in a committed romantic relationship, whether married or not; (b) measurement of the association between adult attachment and support in the context of this relationship; (c) the article was a full report published in English; and (d) the articles were reports of empirical studies published in peer‐reviewed journals, dissertations, review papers, and conference presentations.

Iterative Process

The iterative nature of developing a search strategy for systematic reviews stems from the need to refine and adapt the search process based on the information encountered at each stage.

A single attempt rarely yields the perfect final strategy. Instead, it is an evolving process involving a series of test searches, analysis of results, and discussions among the review team.

Here’s how the iterative process unfolds:

• Initial Strategy Formulation: Based on the research question, the team develops a preliminary search strategy, including identifying relevant keywords, synonyms, databases, and search limits.
• Test Searches and Refinement: The initial search strategy is then tested on chosen databases. The results are reviewed for relevance, and the search strategy is refined accordingly. This might involve adding or modifying keywords, adjusting Boolean operators, or reconsidering the databases used.
• Discussions and Iteration: The search results and proposed refinements are discussed within the review team. The team collaboratively decides on the best modifications to improve the search’s comprehensiveness and relevance.
• Repeating the Cycle: This cycle of test searches, analysis, discussions, and refinements is repeated until the team is satisfied with the strategy’s ability to capture all relevant studies while minimizing irrelevant results.

The iterative nature of developing a search strategy is crucial for ensuring that the systematic review is comprehensive and unbiased.

By constantly refining the search strategy based on the results and feedback, researchers can be more confident that they have identified all relevant studies.

This iterative process ensures that the applied search strategy is sensitive enough to capture all relevant studies while maintaining a manageable scope.

Throughout this process, meticulous documentation of the search strategy, including any modifications, is crucial for transparency and future replication of the systematic review.

Step 4: Search the Literature

Conduct a systematic search of the literature using clearly defined search terms and databases.

Applying the search strategy involves entering the constructed search strings into the respective databases’ search interfaces. These search strings, crafted using Boolean operators, truncation symbols, wildcards, and database-specific syntax, aim to retrieve all potentially relevant studies addressing the research question.

The researcher, during this stage, interacts with the database’s features to refine the search and manage the retrieved results.

This might involve employing search filters provided by the database to focus on specific study designs, publication types, or other relevant parameters.

Applying the search strategy is not merely a mechanical process of inputting terms; it demands a thorough understanding of database functionalities and a discerning eye to adjust the search based on the nature of retrieved results.

Step 5: screening and selecting research articles

Once the search strategy is finalized, it is applied to the selected databases, yielding a set of search results.

These search results are then screened against pre-defined inclusion criteria to determine their eligibility for inclusion in the review.

The goal is to identify studies that are both relevant to the research question and of sufficient quality to contribute to a meaningful synthesis.

Studies meeting the inclusion criteria are usually saved into electronic databases, such as Endnote or Mendeley , and include title, authors, date and publication journal along with an abstract (if available).

Study Selection

Specify the methods used to decide whether a study met the inclusion criteria of the review, including how many reviewers screened each record and each report retrieved, whether they worked independently, and if applicable, details of automation tools used in the process. PRISMA 2020 Checklist

The selection process in a systematic review involves multiple reviewers to ensure rigor and reliability.

To minimize bias and enhance the reliability of the study selection process, it is recommended that at least two reviewers independently assess the eligibility of each study. This independent assessment helps reduce the impact of individual biases or errors in judgment.

• Initial screening of titles and abstracts: After applying a strategy to search the literature, the next step involves screening the titles and abstracts of the identified articles against the predefined inclusion and exclusion criteria. During this initial screening, reviewers aim to identify potentially relevant studies while excluding those clearly outside the scope of the review. It is crucial to prioritize over-inclusion at this stage, meaning that reviewers should err on the side of keeping studies even if there is uncertainty about their relevance. This cautious approach helps minimize the risk of inadvertently excluding potentially valuable studies.
• Retrieving and assessing full texts: For studies which a definitive decision cannot be made based on the title and abstract alone, reviewers need to obtain the full text of the articles for a comprehensive assessment against the predefined inclusion and exclusion criteria. This stage involves meticulously reviewing the full text of each potentially relevant study to determine its eligibility definitively.
• Resolution of disagreements : In cases of disagreement between reviewers regarding a study’s eligibility, a predefined strategy involving consensus-building discussions or arbitration by a third reviewer should be in place to reach a final decision. This collaborative approach ensures a fair and impartial selection process, further strengthening the review’s reliability.

First, the search results from separate databases were combined, and any duplicates were removed. The lead author (S. M.) and a postgraduate researcher (F. N.) applied the described inclusion criteria in a standardized manner. First, both the titles and abstracts of the articles were evaluated for relevance. If, on the basis of the title and/or abstract, the study looked likely to meet inclusion criteria hard copies of the manuscripts were obtained. If there was doubt about the suitability of an article, then the manuscript was included in the next step. The remaining articles were obtained for full‐text review, and the method and results sections were read to examine whether the article fitted the inclusion criteria. If there was doubt about the suitability of the manuscripts during this phase, then this article was discussed with another author (C. H.). Finally, the reference lists of the eligible articles were checked for additional relevant articles not identified during the computerized search. For the selected articles (n = 43), the results regarding the relationship between attachment and support were included in this review (see Figure 1, for PRISMA flowchart).

PRISMA Flowchart

The PRISMA flowchart is a visual representation of the study selection process within a systematic review.

The flowchart illustrates the step-by-step process of screening, filtering, and selecting studies based on predefined inclusion and exclusion criteria.

The flowchart visually depicts the following stages:

• Identification: The initial number of titles and abstracts identified through database searches.
• Screening: The screening process, based on titles and abstracts.
• Eligibility: Full-text copies of the remaining records are retrieved and assessed for eligibility.
• Inclusion: Applying the predefined inclusion criteria resulted in the inclusion of publications that met all the criteria for the review.
• Exclusion: The flowchart details the reasons for excluding the remaining records.

This systematic and transparent approach, as visualized in the PRISMA flowchart, ensures a robust and unbiased selection process, enhancing the reliability of the systematic review’s findings.

The flowchart serves as a visual record of the decisions made during the study selection process, allowing readers to assess the rigor and comprehensiveness of the review.

• How to fill a PRISMA flow diagram

Step 6: Criticallay Appraising the Quality of Included Studies

Quality assessment provides a measure of the strength of the evidence presented in a review.

High-quality studies with rigorous methodologies contribute to a more robust and reliable evidence base, increasing confidence in the review’s conclusions.

Conversely, including low-quality studies with methodological weaknesses can undermine the review’s findings and potentially lead to inaccurate recommendations.

To judge the quality of studies included in a systematic review, standardized instruments, such as checklists and scales, are commonly used. These tools help to ensure a transparent and reproducible assessment process.

The choice of tool should be justified and aligned with the study design and the level of detail required. Using quality scores alone is discouraged; instead, individual aspects of methodological quality should be considered.

Here are some specific tools mentioned in the sources:

• Jadad score
• Cochrane Risk of Bias tool
• Cochrane Effective Practice and Organisation of Care (EPOC) Group Risk of Bias Tool
• Quality Assessment of Diagnostic Accuracy Studies (QUADAS)
• Newcastle – Ottawa Quality Assessment Scale for case-control and cohort studies
• EPHPP Assessment Tool
• Critical Appraisal Skills Programme (CASP) Appraisal Checklist
• Cochrane Public Health Group (CPHG)

The quality of the study was not an inclusion criterion; however, a study quality check was carried out. Two independent reviewers (S. M. and C. H.) rated studies that met the inclusion criteria to determine the strength of the evidence. The Effective Public Health Practice Project Quality Assessment Tool for Quantitative Studies was adapted to assess the methodological quality of each study (Thomas, Ciliska, Dobbins, & Micucci, 2004). The tool was adjusted to include domains relevant to the method of each study. For example, blinding was removed for nonexperimental studies. Following recommendations by Thomas et al. (2004) each domain was rated as either weak (3 points), moderate (2 points), or strong (1 point). The mean score across questions was used as an indicator of overall quality, and studies were assigned an overall quality rating of strong (1.00–1.50), moderate (1.51–2.50),

Evidence Tables

Aspects of the appraisal of studies included in the review should be recorded as evidence tables (NICE 2009): simple text tables where the design and scope of studies are summarised.

The reader of the review can use the evidence tables to check the details, and assess the credibility and generalisability of findings, of particular studies.

Critical appraisal of the quality of included studies may be combined with data extraction tables.

Step 7: extracting data from studies

To effectively extract data from studies that meet your systematic review’s inclusion criteria, you should follow a structured process that ensures accuracy, consistency, and minimizes bias.

1. Develop a data extraction form:

• Design a standardized form (paper or electronic) to guide the data extraction process : This form should be tailored to your specific review question and the types of studies included.
• Pilot test the form : Test the form on a small sample of included studies (e.g., 3-5). Assess for clarity, completeness, and usability. Refine the form based on feedback and initial experiences.
• Reliability : Ensure all team members understand how to use the form consistently.

2. Extract the data:

• General Information: This includes basic bibliographic details (journal, title, author, volume, page numbers), study objective as stated by the authors, study design, and funding source.
• Study Characteristics: Capture details about the study population (demographics, inclusion/exclusion criteria, recruitment procedures), interventions (description, delivery methods), and comparators (description if applicable).
• Outcome Data: Record the results of the intervention and how they were measured, including specific statistics used. Clearly define all outcomes for which data are being extracted.
• Risk of Bias Assessment: Document the methods used to assess the quality of the included studies and any potential sources of bias. This might involve using standardized checklists or scales.
• Additional Information: Depending on your review, you may need to extract data on other variables like adverse effects, economic evaluations, or specific methodological details.

3. Dual independent review:

• Ensure that at least two reviewers independently extract data from each study using the standardized form. Cross-check extracted data for accuracy to minimize bias and helps identify any discrepancies.
• Have a predefined strategy for resolving disagreements: This might involve discussion, consensus, or arbitration by a third reviewer.
• Record the reasons for excluding any studies during the data extraction phase. :This enhances the transparency and reproducibility of your review.
• If necessary, contact study authors to obtain missing or clarify unclear information : This is particularly important for data critical to your review’s outcomes.
• Clearly document your entire data extraction process, including any challenges encountered and decisions made. This enhances the transparency and rigor of your systematic review.

By following these steps, you can effectively extract data from studies that meet your inclusion criteria, forming a solid foundation for the analysis and synthesis phases of your systematic review.

Step 8: synthesize the extracted data

The key element of a systematic review is the synthesis: that is the process that brings together the findings from the set of included studies in order to draw conclusions based on the body of evidence.

Data synthesis in a systematic review involves collating, combining, and summarizing findings from the included studies.

This process aims to provide a reliable and comprehensive answer to the review question by considering the strength of the evidence, examining the consistency of observed effects, and investigating any inconsistencies.

The data synthesis will be presented in the results section of the systematic review.

• Develop a clear text narrative that explains the key findings
• Use a logical heading structure to guide readers through your results synthesis
• Ensure your text narrative addresses the review’s research questions
• Use tables to summarise findings (can be same table as data extraction)

Identifying patterns, trends, and differences across studies

Narrative synthesis uses a textual approach to analyze relationships within and between studies to provide an overall assessment of the evidence’s robustness. All systematic reviews should incorporate elements of narrative synthesis, such as tables and text.

Remember, the goal of a narrative synthesis is to go beyond simply summarizing individual studies. You’re aiming to create a new understanding by integrating and interpreting the available evidence in a systematic and transparent way.

Organize your data:

• Group studies by themes, interventions, or outcomes
• Create summary tables to display key information across studies
• Use visual aids like concept maps to show relationships between studies

Describe the studies:

• Summarize the characteristics of included studies (e.g., designs, sample sizes, settings)
• Highlight similarities and differences across studies
• Discuss the overall quality of the evidence

Develop a preliminary synthesis:

• Start by describing the results of individual studies
• Group similar findings together
• Identify overarching themes or trends

Explore relationships:

• Look for patterns in the data
• Identify factors that might explain differences in results across studies
• Consider how study characteristics relate to outcomes

Address contradictions:

• Consider differences in study populations, interventions, or contexts
• Look at methodological differences that might explain discrepancies
• Consider the implications of inconsistent results
• Don’t ignore conflicting findings
• Discuss possible reasons for contradictions

Avoid vote counting:

• Don’t simply tally positive versus negative results
• Instead, consider the strength and quality of evidence for each finding

Assess the robustness of the synthesis:

• Reflect on the strength of evidence for each finding
• Consider how gaps or limitations in the primary studies affect your conclusions
• Discuss any potential biases in the synthesis process

Step 9: discussion section and conclusion

Summarize key findings:.

• Summarize key findings in relation to your research questions
• Highlight main themes or patterns across studies
• Explain the nuances and complexities in the evidence
• Discuss the overall strength and consistency of the evidence
• This provides a clear takeaway message for readers

Consider study quality and context:

• Assess whether higher quality studies tend to show different results
• Examine if findings differ based on study setting or participant characteristics
• This helps readers weigh the relative importance of conflicting findings

Discuss implications:

• For practice: How might professionals apply these findings?
• For policy: What policy changes might be supported by the evidence?
• Consider both positive and negative implications
• This helps translate your findings into real-world applications

Identify gaps and future research:

• Point out areas where evidence is lacking or inconsistent
• Suggest specific research questions or study designs to address these gaps
• This helps guide future research efforts in the field

State strengths and limitations:

• Discuss the strengths of your review (e.g., comprehensive search, rigorous methodology)
• Acknowledge limitations (e.g., language restrictions, potential for publication bias)
• This balanced approach demonstrates critical thinking and helps readers interpret your findings

Minimizing Bias

To reduce bias in a systematic review, it is crucial to establish a systematic and transparent review process that minimizes bias at every stage. Sources provide insights into strategies and methods to achieve this goal.

• Protocol development and publication: Developing a comprehensive protocol before starting the review is essential. Publishing the protocol in repositories like PROSPERO or Cochrane Library promotes transparency and helps avoid deviations from the planned approach, thereby minimizing the risk of bias.
• Transparent reporting: Adhering to reporting guidelines, such as PRISMA, ensures that all essential aspects of the review are adequately documented, increasing the reader’s confidence in the transparency and completeness of systematic review reporting.
• Dual independent review: Employing two or more reviewers independently at multiple stages of the review process (study selection, data extraction, quality assessment) minimizes bias. Any disagreements between reviewers should be resolved through discussion or by consulting a third reviewer. This approach reduces the impact of individual reviewers’ subjective interpretations or errors.
• Rigorous quality assessment: Assessing the methodological quality of included studies is crucial for minimizing bias in the review findings. Using standardized critical appraisal tools and checklists helps identify potential biases within individual studies, such as selection bias, performance bias, attrition bias, and detection bias.
• Searching beyond published literature: Explore sources of “grey literature” such as conference proceedings, unpublished reports, theses, and ongoing clinical trial databases.
• Contacting experts in the field : Researchers can reach out to authors and investigators to inquire about unpublished or ongoing studies
• Considering language bias : Expanding the search to include studies published in languages other than English can help reduce language bias, although this may increase the complexity and cost of the review.

Reading List

• Galante, J., Galante, I., Bekkers, M. J., & Gallacher, J. (2014). Effect of kindness-based meditation on health and well-being: a systematic review and meta-analysis .  Journal of consulting and clinical psychology ,  82 (6), 1101.
• Schneider, M., & Preckel, F. (2017). Variables associated with achievement in higher education: A systematic review of meta-analyses .  Psychological bulletin ,  143 (6), 565.
• Murray, J., Farrington, D. P., & Sekol, I. (2012). Children’s antisocial behavior, mental health, drug use, and educational performance after parental incarceration: a systematic review and meta-analysis .  Psychological bulletin ,  138 (2), 175.
• Roberts, B. W., Luo, J., Briley, D. A., Chow, P. I., Su, R., & Hill, P. L. (2017). A systematic review of personality trait change through intervention .  Psychological bulletin ,  143 (2), 117.
• Chu, C., Buchman-Schmitt, J. M., Stanley, I. H., Hom, M. A., Tucker, R. P., Hagan, C. R., … & Joiner Jr, T. E. (2017). The interpersonal theory of suicide: A systematic review and meta-analysis of a decade of cross-national research.   Psychological bulletin ,  143 (12), 1313.
• McLeod, S., Berry, K., Hodgson, C., & Wearden, A. (2020). Attachment and social support in romantic dyads: A systematic review .  Journal of clinical psychology ,  76 (1), 59-101.

Up Learn – A Level Psychology (AQA) – Memory

Strengths of the working memory model: case studies.

Case studies of patients like patient KF support the working memory model, because these studies suggest there are multiple short-term memory stores.

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More videos on The Working Memory Model

Introduction (free trial)

Limitations of the Multi-store Model: Patient KF Case Study

Limitations of the Multi-store Model: Short-term Memory Stores (free trial)

Limitations of the Multi-store Model: the Role of Rehearsal (free trial)

Progress Quiz: Limitations of the Multi-store Model (free trial)

The Working Memory Model

Phonological Loop (free trial)

Sub-components of the Phonological Loop (free trial)

Rehearsal and the Word-length Effect (free trial)

Visuo-spatial Sketchpad (free trial)

Sub-components of the Visuo-spatial Sketchpad (free trial)

Episodic Buffer (free trial)

What is Memory?

Types of memory, types of long-term memory, memory accuracy: how good is our memory, exam questions: memory.

We’ve now seen the four components of the working memory model…

The phonological loop is a store for auditory and verbal information…

The visuospatial sketchpad is a store for visual information…

The episodic buffer is a multi-modal store that combines information across senses to create a memory of an event.

And the central executive is a system that manages the three working memory stores and divides our attention across the stores!

So, now that we’ve looked at the working memory model, we can look at the evidence supporting  the model.

And we’re going to look at evidence from three sources: case studies, laboratory experiments, and imaging studies…

And first up, we’re going to look at patient case studies…

For instance, earlier we looked at a patient KF, who had…

Patient KF had damage to his short-term memory, but not his long-term memory.

And his short-term memory damage affected his ability to retain verbal information, but not visual information.

Now, we also saw earlier that the multi-store model can’t explain how patient KF has damage to just his short-term memory…

According to the multi-store model, information must go through the short-term memory store before it is transferred to the long-term memory store…

And there is just one short-term memory store….

So, if this store is damaged, there’s no way for information to reach the long-term memory store!

On the other hand, the working memory model says that we have multiple short-term memory stores, called the…

The three memory stores in the working memory model are the phonological loop, the visuospatial sketchpad and the episodic buffer.

Now, if one of the stores is damaged, such as the phonological loop, [show store crossed out], information can’t pass from this store to long-term memory….

But, information can still be transferred to long-term memory using one of the remaining stores! 

So, the working memory model predicts that people can damage their short-term memory without damaging their long-term memory…

…so long as they haven’t damaged all of their working memory stores!

So, now, how would the working memory model explain patient KF’s symptoms?

According to the working memory model, patient KF had damage to his phonological loop, but not his visuospatial sketchpad, or episodic buffer.

This meant that he struggled to retain sounds and verbal information, but he could still retain other kinds of information in working memory.

And, with the help of his visuospatial sketchpad and episodic buffer, he could still transfer this information into long-term memory.

So, one strength of the working memory model is that it receives support from case studies, like patient KF.

But we’ve also seen that patient case studies have their own limitations…

First, case studies only look at a small number of rare cases.

So, the results might not generalise to other people: we can’t be sure that everyone’s memory works the same way!…

And a second limitation of patient case studies is that it’s hard to establish a cause and effect relationship between the patient’s brain damage, and their behaviour, because we don’t know how the patient behaved before the brain damage! 

Luckily, the working memory model is also supported by other types of research, which we’ll see in more detail next.

But first, to recap…

A Case Study in Meaning and Purpose

A subset of depression results from lack of meaning and purpose..

Posted July 26, 2024 | Reviewed by Abigail Fagan

• What Is Depression?
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• All forms of depression reduce meaning and purpose.
• Meaning and purpose can be restored, and depression relieved, by creating value.
• Attention to the meaning and purpose of our lives is healing as well as motivational.

All forms of depression diminish meaning and purpose. A subset of depression is caused by a lack of meaning and purpose, which eventually leads to feelings of hopelessness. The following is such a case.

Sherrill was a 45-year-old divorced parent of two young children, who lived with their mother. He had a history of short-term relationships before marrying the love of his life a decade ago. Things started going wrong in the marriage soon after the birth of their first child. Sherrill worked hard in a successful family business, but he hated the job and felt unappreciated by his father, who started the business. He felt doubly unappreciated by his wife, who felt emotionally isolated in the marriage. They saw several marriage counselors before she initiated the divorce three years ago. Sherrill didn’t want the divorce but chose not to contest it.

He’d spent the last three years on various medications and in treatment with several psychodynamic and cognitive-behavioral therapists. He described these experiences as increasing his self-knowledge with no improvement in his dysphoria. As he put it, he learned all the reasons he was in a hole, but no one could help him get out of it.

In the beginning of our work, he weaponized, as a form of self-criticism, the behaviors that help people recover from depression.

“I don’t appreciate anything or anyone. I withdrew from all my friends, and I prefer it that way. I own that I mistreated my wife, but the marriage ended because she didn’t appreciate me, how hard I worked, all that I’d given her. I resent everybody who works under me, and I resent my people-pleasing father because he undermines my authority. He made me take on the family business when I was young, and now he torments me with his permissive attitudes toward our lazy workers.”

We ruled out physiological causes for Sherrill’s malaise with a comprehensive physical, including blood and hormone tests. Everything was normal. We instituted a regimen of walking 30 minutes a day. He continued to reject therapeutic interventions for depression.

We caught a break at the end of our third session. A bright reddish-orange beam of light streamed through my office window. I went to the window and invited him to join me to admire the extraordinary sunset. He reluctantly agreed. We watched for a few seconds before he said:

“It hurts to look at something beautiful.”

“The pain is telling you to open your heart — just a little — to really see the sunset. That’s all; you don’t have to commit to keeping your heart open. Just for now, try to really see it.”

He cried as we watched the sun fall beyond the horizon.

I asked him to agree to an experiment. He cringed when I mentioned the word, “appreciate,” but he agreed to write down three thoughts of “opening his heart” to another person or to beauty in nature or creative arts or spirituality .

The following were Sherrill’s appreciative thoughts:

“I can imagine opening my heart to my daughters.”

“Tell me about that.”

“I like to see them happy and curious.”

I asked when he saw his daughters happy and curious.

“When I pay attention to them.”

"What else might you appreciate?”

“I like classical music. And folk music from my country.”

Fortunately, I had a playlist that featured Bach and Mozart. He said he would add his favorite folk music to it.

Again, I asked what else he might appreciate.

“I used to like thinking about nature, flowers, and trees and stuff. The ocean, too.”

“Try to think about them right now, with your heart open.”

For homework, I asked him to think about things that help him open his heart, and see if behaviors start to occur to him.

Sherrill’s Appreciative Behaviors

• Walk in nature, in the woods a few miles from my house
• Visit the art gallery downtown
• Listen to music
• Meditate and pray every day
• Try to be more open to the people who work for me
• Open my heart to my daughters and my ex-wife.

His next homework assignment was to think of ways he could protect the well-being of his daughters. I gave him a few hints to think about.

Sherrill’s Protective Behaviors

• I will nurture the physical needs and emotional desires of my daughters by providing for them, playing with them, listening to them, and letting them know they are important to me.
• I will reassure them and calm any anxieties and fears.
• I will encourage them to learn and pursue their dreams .
• Of course, I’ll show them love and affection.

His next homework assignment was to think of ways he was connected to people besides his daughters.

Sherrill’s Connection Thoughts

• I am part of a family, community, and nation.
• I’m part of humanity and the spiritual universe.
• I will renew old friendships and take an interest in new people I meet.
• I will accept people for who they are and not try to judge them.

Once he was able to jump-start his innate capacity to create value, hope, and meaning, a renewed sense of purpose followed. He identified an immediate goal of getting well. At that point he was receptive to traditional cognitive-behavioral interventions for depression, to which he responded beautifully.

Most depressions are not caused by loss of meaning and purpose but nearly all feature such loss as a symptom. Attention to the meaning and purpose of our lives is healing as well as motivational.

Steven Stosny, Ph.D., treats people for anger and relationship problems. His recent books include How to Improve your Marriage without Talking about It and Love Without Hurt .

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Sticking up for yourself is no easy task. But there are concrete skills you can use to hone your assertiveness and advocate for yourself.

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