Note: SES refers to socioeconomic status. The gaps are standard deviation scores for high-SES children relative to low-SES children after adjusting for all family and child characteristics, pre-K schooling, and enrichment activities with parents, and parental expectations for children’s educational attainment. The gap in 2010 equals the gap in 1998 plus the change in the gap from 1998 to 2010. For statistical significance of these numbers, see Tables 3 and 4, Model 4.
Gap between top and bottom quintiles in 1998 | Change in gap from 1998 to 2010 | |
---|---|---|
Reading | 1.29 | |
Math | 1.46 | -0.15 |
Self-control (by teachers) | 0.32 | -0.10 |
Approaches to learning (by teachers) | 0.64 | -0.24 |
Self-control (by parents) | 0.47 | -0.14 |
Approaches to learning (by parents) | 0.66 |
Notes: The gaps are the baseline unadjusted standard deviation scores for high-SES children relative to low-SES children where high-SES children have mothers in the top quintile of the education distribution and low-SES children have mothers in bottom quintile of the education distribution. The gap in 2010 equals the gap in 1998 plus the change in the gap from 1998 to 2010. For statistical significance of these numbers, see Table 7, Model 1.
Gap between top and bottom quintiles in 1998 | Change in gap from 1998 to 2010 | |
---|---|---|
Reading | 1.09 | -0.13 |
Math | 1.31 | -0.23 |
Self-control (by teachers) | 0.42 | |
Approaches to learning (by teachers) | 0.60 | -0.13 |
Self-control (by parents) | 0.44 | |
Approaches to learning (by parents) | 0.44 |
Notes: The gaps are the baseline unadjusted standard deviation scores for high-SES children relative to low-SES children where high-SES children are in households with incomes in the top quintile of the income distribution and low-SES children are in households with incomes in bottom quintile of the income distribution. The gap in 2010 equals the gap in 1998 plus the change in the gap from 1998 to 2010. For statistical significance of these numbers, see Table 8, Model 1.
Gap between top and bottom quintiles in 1998 | Change in gap from 1998 to 2010 | |
---|---|---|
Reading | 0.74 | 0.08 |
Math | 0.97 | |
Self-control (by teachers) | 0.32 | |
Approaches to learning (by teachers) | 0.46 | |
Self-control (by parents) | 0.28 | |
Approaches to learning (by parents) | 0.58 | 0.09 |
Notes: The gaps are the baseline unadjusted standard deviation scores for high-SES children relative to low-SES children where high-SES children have a number of books in the home in the top quintile of the books-in-the-home distribution and low-SES children have a number of books in the home in the bottom quintile of the books-in-the-home distribution. The gap in 2010 equals the gap in 1998 plus the change in the gap from 1998 to 2010. For statistical significance of these numbers, see Table 9, Model 1.
Reading | Mathematics | Self-control (by teachers) | Approaches to learning (by teachers) | Self-control (by parents) | Approaches to learning (by parents) | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 (unadjusted) | 2 (clustered) | 1 (unadjusted) | 2 (clustered) | 1 (unadjusted) | 2 (clustered) | 1 (unadjusted) | 2 (clustered) | 1 (unadjusted) | 2 (clustered) | 1 (unadjusted) | 2 (clustered) | |
Gap in 2010–2011 | 1.169*** | 0.944*** | 1.250*** | 0.911*** | 0.386*** | 0.363*** | 0.513*** | 0.562*** | 0.391*** | 0.326*** | 0.563*** | 0.460*** |
(0.024) | (0.036) | (0.024) | (0.034) | (0.029) | (0.041) | (0.027) | (0.041) | (0.028) | (0.041) | (0.028) | (0.044) | |
Controls | ||||||||||||
Demographics | No | No | No | No | No | No | No | No | No | No | No | No |
Education and engagement | No | No | No | No | No | No | No | No | No | No | No | No |
Parental expectations | No | No | No | No | No | No | No | No | No | No | No | No |
School fixed effects | No | Yes | No | Yes | No | Yes | No | Yes | No | Yes | No | Yes |
Observations | 14,090 | 14,090 | 14,040 | 14,040 | 12,180 | 12,180 | 13,280 | 13,280 | 12,890 | 12,890 | 12,900 | 12,900 |
Adjusted R2 | 0.165 | 0.281 | 0.190 | 0.276 | 0.021 | 0.114 | 0.034 | 0.105 | 0.018 | 0.028 | 0.037 | 0.118 |
Note: Using the full sample. For statistical significance, *** denotes p < 0.01, ** denotes p < 0.05, and * denotes p < 0.1. The number of observations is rounded to the nearest multiple of 10. Sizes may differ from those inferred from Tables 3–6, and from those in García 2015, due to differences in the sample sizes or to rounding.
Source: EPI analysis of ECLS-K, kindergarten class of 2010–2011 (National Center for Education Statistics)
1998–1999 | Low-SES (quintile 1) | Low-middle SES (quintile 2) | Middle SES (quintile 3) | High-middle SES (quintile 4) | High-SES (quintile 5) | All quintiles | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Child and family characteristics and main developmental activities | |||||||
Race/ethnicity | White | 26.40% | 53.70% | 61.20% | 68.10% | 78.80% | 57.70% |
Black | 26.20% | 17.80% | 15.50% | 12.00% | 6.40% | 15.60% | |
Hispanic | 39.80% | 21.20% | 15.80% | 12.70% | 6.80% | 19.20% | |
Hispanic English language learner (ELL) | 28.40% | 9.50% | 4.80% | 3.10% | 1.40% | 9.40% | |
Hispanic English speaker | 11.50% | 11.70% | 10.90% | 9.60% | 5.40% | 9.80% | |
Asian | 2.30% | 1.70% | 2.30% | 2.70% | 4.70% | 2.70% | |
Other | 5.30% | 5.60% | 5.30% | 4.40% | 3.40% | 4.80% | |
Poverty status | Lives in poverty | 71.30% | 22.30% | 10.60% | 4.20% | 1.10% | 21.80% |
Language | Child’s language at home is not English | 31.20% | 12.00% | 7.00% | 6.10% | 5.30% | 12.30% |
Family composition | Not living with two parents | 45.60% | 30.50% | 23.80% | 15.80% | 11.10% | 25.10% |
Number of family members | 4.84 | 4.55 | 4.42 | 4.36 | 4.40 | 4.51 | |
First- or second-generation immigrant | 30.30% | 15.10% | 12.80% | 13.10% | 15.40% | 17.30% | |
Pre-K care arrangements | Pre-K care | 64.20% | 70.90% | 76.50% | 81.00% | 87.80% | 76.20% |
Pre-K care, center-based | 43.70% | 45.00% | 50.20% | 55.40% | 65.80% | 52.20% | |
Parental care | 30.50% | 22.60% | 17.20% | 15.40% | 9.90% | 18.90% | |
Care by relative | 15.90% | 18.30% | 16.20% | 11.80% | 6.60% | 13.70% | |
Care by nonrelative | 5.30% | 8.20% | 10.90% | 11.60% | 13.70% | 10.00% | |
Care by multiple sources | 4.60% | 5.90% | 5.50% | 5.80% | 3.90% | 5.20% | |
Activities indices | Literacy/reading | -0.221 | -0.059 | -0.010 | 0.070 | 0.193 | -0.003 |
Other educational and engagement activities | -0.114 | -0.011 | 0.014 | 0.042 | 0.071 | 0.002 | |
Number of books | Average number | 32.4 | 58.1 | 74.3 | 87.9 | 107.3 | 72.5 |
Number of books, grouped by least to most | 0–25 | 61.70% | 31.60% | 20.20% | 11.30% | 5.00% | 25.50% |
26–50 | 23.10% | 34.80% | 30.80% | 30.60% | 21.40% | 28.20% | |
51–100 | 11.30% | 23.40% | 32.90% | 36.00% | 41.00% | 29.10% | |
101–199 | 1.80% | 4.00% | 5.70% | 6.60% | 9.50% | 5.60% | |
More than 200 | 2.10% | 6.20% | 10.30% | 15.50% | 23.00% | 11.50% | |
Parents’ expectations for their children’s educational attainment | |||||||
Highest education level expected | High school or less | 24.10% | 15.20% | 7.70% | 3.70% | 1.20% | 10.20% |
Two or more years of college, vocational school | 16.40% | 21.80% | 21.40% | 11.60% | 3.80% | 14.90% | |
Bachelor’s degree | 33.20% | 38.70% | 46.70% | 58.80% | 57.20% | 47.10% | |
Master’s degree | 9.20% | 9.40% | 10.30% | 13.60% | 22.80% | 13.10% | |
Ph.D. or M.D. | 17.10% | 15.00% | 13.90% | 12.30% | 15.00% | 14.60% | |
2010–2011 | Low-SES (quintile 1) | Low-middle SES (quintile 2) | Middle SES (quintile 3) | High-middle SES (quintile 4) | High-SES (quintile 5) | All quintiles | |
Child and family characteristics, and main developmental activities | |||||||
Race/ethnicity | White | 23.10% | 45.50% | 56.80% | 69.00% | 71.30% | 52.90% |
Black | 19.60% | 17.00% | 13.40% | 9.40% | 5.80% | 13.20% | |
Hispanic | 50.40% | 28.30% | 19.70% | 12.20% | 8.60% | 24.10% | |
Hispanic English language learner (ELL) | 36.10% | 11.90% | 5.20% | 2.10% | 0.90% | 11.40% | |
Hispanic English speaker | 14.30% | 16.30% | 14.40% | 10.10% | 7.70% | 12.60% | |
Asian | 2.50% | 2.80% | 3.20% | 4.40% | 8.70% | 4.20% | |
Others | 4.40% | 6.40% | 7.00% | 4.90% | 5.60% | 5.70% | |
Poverty status | Lives in poverty | 84.60% | 35.70% | 10.90% | 3.10% | 0.60% | 25.50% |
Language | Child’s language at home is not English | 40.30% | 15.60% | 8.00% | 5.00% | 7.00% | 15.30% |
Family composition | Not living with two parents | 54.90% | 41.70% | 34.10% | 19.30% | 9.60% | 31.80% |
Number of family members | 4.81 | 4.62 | 4.53 | 4.44 | 4.46 | 4.57 | |
First- or second-generation immigrant | 49.80% | 25.70% | 18.90% | 17.20% | 21.60% | 26.10% | |
Pre-K care arrangements | Pre-K care | 66.60% | 75.60% | 81.60% | 85.00% | 88.30% | 79.30% |
Pre-K care, center-based | 44.30% | 47.00% | 53.10% | 61.60% | 69.90% | 55.10% | |
Parental care | 34.90% | 25.40% | 19.10% | 15.40% | 12.00% | 21.40% | |
Care by relative | 16.00% | 19.70% | 17.40% | 12.70% | 8.60% | 14.90% | |
Care by nonrelative | 3.30% | 5.50% | 7.40% | 7.30% | 6.90% | 6.10% | |
Care by multiple sources | 1.50% | 2.40% | 3.10% | 2.90% | 2.70% | 2.50% | |
Activities indices | Literacy/reading | -0.231 | -0.038 | 0.033 | 0.094 | 0.171 | 0.008 |
Other educational and engagement activities | -0.049 | 0.022 | 0.029 | 0.026 | 0.001 | 0.006 | |
Number of books | Average number | 35.2 | 57.6 | 74.1 | 90.8 | 106.3 | 73.1 |
Number of books, grouped by least to most | 0–25 | 59.30% | 33.60% | 19.40% | 11.50% | 5.00% | 25.50% |
26–50 | 24.70% | 31.70% | 32.50% | 26.90% | 22.40% | 27.70% | |
51–100 | 11.20% | 24.80% | 32.30% | 39.00% | 41.70% | 30.00% | |
101–199 | 1.70% | 3.10% | 5.50% | 6.50% | 7.70% | 4.90% | |
More than 200 | 3.10% | 6.80% | 10.30% | 16.20% | 23.20% | 12.00% | |
Parents’ expectations for their children’s educational attainment | |||||||
Highest education level expected | High school or less | 11.40% | 6.20% | 5.00% | 2.40% | 1.00% | 5.20% |
Two or more years of college, vocational school | 16.70% | 25.00% | 17.20% | 9.80% | 3.20% | 14.40% | |
Bachelor’s degree | 34.80% | 39.10% | 47.00% | 57.10% | 53.10% | 46.30% | |
Master’s degree | 10.70% | 12.30% | 14.60% | 16.80% | 26.60% | 16.20% | |
Ph.D. or M.D. | 26.40% | 17.30% | 16.20% | 13.90% | 16.10% | 17.90% |
Note: SES refers to socioeconomic status.
Reading models | Mathematics models | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 (unadjusted) | 2 | 3 | 4 (fully adjusted) | 1 (unadjusted) | 2 | 3 | 4 (fully adjusted) | |
Gap in 1998 | 1.071*** | 0.846*** | 0.641*** | 0.596*** | 1.258*** | 0.932*** | 0.668*** | 0.610*** |
(0.024) | (0.032) | (0.031) | (0.031) | (0.022) | (0.033) | (0.030) | (0.031) | |
Change in gap by 2010 | 0.098*** | 0.122*** | 0.096* | 0.080 | -0.008 | 0.025 | 0.053 | 0.051 |
(0.033) | (0.046) | (0.051) | (0.052) | (0.032) | (0.045) | (0.047) | (0.048) | |
Controls | ||||||||
Demographics | No | No | Yes | Yes | No | No | Yes | Yes |
Education and engagement | No | No | Yes | Yes | No | No | Yes | Yes |
Parental expectations | No | No | No | Yes | No | No | No | Yes |
School fixed effects | No | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Observations | 30,950 | 30,950 | 26,050 | 26,050 | 31,850 | 31,850 | 26,890 | 26,890 |
Adjusted R2 | 0.152 | 0.243 | 0.289 | 0.293 | 0.189 | 0.265 | 0.331 | 0.336 |
Notes: Models 1 and 2 use the full sample; Models 3 and 4 use the complete cases sample. Robust standard errors are in parentheses. For statistical significance, *** denotes p < 0.01, ** denotes p < 0.05, and * denotes p < 0.1. The number of observations is rounded to the nearest multiple of 10. SES refers to socioeconomic status.
Self-control (reported by teachers) models | Approaches to learning (reported by teachers) models | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 (unadjusted) | 2 | 3 | 4 (fully adjusted) | 1 (unadjusted) | 2 | 3 | 4 (fully adjusted) | |
Gap in 1998 | 0.394*** | 0.304*** | 0.217*** | 0.182*** | 0.630*** | 0.630*** | 0.493*** | 0.435*** |
(0.025) | (0.037) | (0.037) | (0.038) | (0.024) | (0.035) | (0.036) | (0.037) | |
Change in gap by 2010 | -0.009 | 0.065 | 0.078 | 0.085 | -0.117*** | -0.066 | -0.042 | -0.043 |
(0.037) | (0.054) | (0.060) | (0.061) | (0.035) | (0.053) | (0.057) | (0.057) | |
Controls | ||||||||
Demographics | No | No | Yes | Yes | No | No | Yes | Yes |
Education and engagement | No | No | Yes | Yes | No | No | Yes | Yes |
Parental expectations | No | No | No | Yes | No | No | No | Yes |
School fixed effects | No | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Observations | 29,500 | 29,500 | 25,080 | 25,080 | 31,260 | 31,260 | 26,460 | 26,460 |
Adjusted R2 | 0.019 | 0.117 | 0.173 | 0.175 | 0.040 | 0.117 | 0.199 | 0.204 |
Self-control (reported by parents) models | Approaches to learning (reported by parents) models | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 (unadjusted) | 2 | 3 | 4 (fully adjusted) | 1 (unadjusted) | 2 | 3 | 4 (fully adjusted) | |
Gap in 1998 | 0.467*** | 0.424*** | 0.357*** | 0.291*** | 0.539*** | 0.479*** | 0.215*** | 0.132*** |
(0.025) | (0.036) | (0.039) | (0.040) | (0.025) | (0.032) | (0.033) | (0.033) | |
Change in gap by 2010 | -0.076** | -0.084 | -0.032 | 0.001 | 0.024 | -0.024 | 0.096* | 0.112** |
(0.037) | (0.054) | (0.060) | (0.061) | (0.036) | (0.053) | (0.055) | (0.056) | |
Controls | ||||||||
Demographics | No | No | Yes | Yes | No | No | Yes | Yes |
Education and engagement | No | No | Yes | Yes | No | No | Yes | Yes |
Parental expectations | No | No | No | Yes | No | No | No | Yes |
School fixed effects | No | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Observations | 30,400 | 30,400 | 27,220 | 27,220 | 30,420 | 30,420 | 27,240 | 27,240 |
Adjusted R2 | 0.022 | 0.037 | 0.075 | 0.079 | 0.035 | 0.057 | 0.218 | 0.228 |
Year | Reduction | Change in reduction from 1998 to 2010 (in percentage points) | |
---|---|---|---|
Reading | 1998 | 45.5% | |
2010 | 42.9% | -2.6 | |
Math | 1998 | 52.6% | |
2010 | 48.6% | -4.1 | |
Self-control (reported by teachers) | 1998 | 50.8% | |
2010 | 32.6% | -18.1 | |
Approaches to learning (reported by teachers) | 1998 | 28.3% | |
2010 | 20.3% | -8 | |
Self-control (reported by parents) | 1998 | 35.3% | |
2010 | 34.3% | -1.1 | |
Approaches to learning (reported by parents) | 1998 | 73.5% | |
2010 | 56.0% | -17.5 |
Note: SES refers to socioeconomic status. Declining values from 1998 to 2010 indicate that factors such as early literacy activities and other controls were not as effective at shrinking SES-based gaps in 2010 as they were in 1998.
Reading | Math | Self-control (reported by teachers) | Approaches to learning (reported by teachers) | Self-control (reported by parents) | Approaches to learning (reported by parents) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Correlations between selected practices and skills measured at kindergarten entry in 1998 | ||||||
Center-based pre-K | 0.106*** | 0.097*** | -0.125*** | -0.001 | -0.006 | 0.018 |
(0.016) | (0.015) | (0.018) | (0.018) | (0.019) | (0.016) | |
Number of books | 0.012*** | 0.016*** | 0.004** | 0.008*** | 0.002 | 0.006*** |
(0.002) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.002) | |
Reading/literacy | 0.166*** | 0.068*** | 0.010 | 0.030* | 0.143*** | 0.315*** |
(0.016) | (0.015) | (0.018) | (0.016) | (0.018) | (0.017) | |
Other activities | -0.115*** | -0.036*** | 0.047*** | 0.033** | 0.046*** | 0.292*** |
(0.015) | (0.014) | (0.017) | (0.016) | (0.017) | (0.016) | |
Correlations between parents’ expectations about their children’s highest level of educational attainment and skills measured at kindergarten entry in 1998 | ||||||
Two or more years of college/vocational school | 0.029 | 0.066** | 0.072* | 0.115*** | 0.180*** | 0.136*** |
(0.025) | (0.026) | (0.042) | (0.037) | (0.038) | (0.033) | |
Bachelor’s degree | 0.114*** | 0.172*** | 0.141*** | 0.211*** | 0.272*** | 0.228*** |
(0.023) | (0.023) | (0.036) | (0.032) | (0.036) | (0.030) | |
Master’s degree or more | 0.160*** | 0.220*** | 0.120*** | 0.219*** | 0.254*** | 0.377*** |
(0.026) | (0.025) | (0.039) | (0.034) | (0.036) | (0.033) | |
Changes from 1998 to 2010 in the correlations between selected practices and skills measured at kindergarten entry | ||||||
Center-based pre-K | -0.005 | -0.036 | 0.060* | -0.010 | -0.020 | 0.010 |
(0.025) | (0.025) | (0.032) | (0.031) | (0.031) | (0.026) | |
Number of books | 0.002 | -0.001 | 0.001 | 0.002 | -0.002 | 0.004 |
(0.003) | (0.002) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.002) | |
Reading/literacy | 0.018 | 0.008 | 0.015 | 0.014 | -0.079*** | -0.173*** |
(0.025) | (0.024) | (0.031) | (0.028) | (0.030) | (0.027) | |
Other activities | -0.008 | -0.016 | 0.031 | 0.020 | 0.218*** | 0.265*** |
(0.025) | (0.024) | (0.029) | (0.028) | (0.029) | (0.025) | |
Changes from 1998 to 2010 in the correlations between parents’ expectations about their children’s highest level of educational attainment and skills measured at kindergarten entry | ||||||
Two or more years of college/vocational school | 0.121** | 0.106* | 0.201** | 0.204*** | -0.030 | 0.151** |
(0.055) | (0.059) | (0.081) | (0.072) | (0.084) | (0.066) | |
Bachelor’s degree | 0.139*** | 0.103** | 0.136* | 0.174*** | -0.084 | 0.100 |
(0.048) | (0.051) | (0.070) | (0.063) | (0.078) | (0.061) | |
Master’s degree or more | 0.186*** | 0.117** | 0.140* | 0.189*** | -0.041 | 0.076 |
(0.052) | (0.054) | (0.074) | (0.066) | (0.081) | (0.063) | |
Observations | 26,050 | 26,890 | 25,080 | 26,460 | 27,220 | 27,240 |
Adj.R2 | 0.293 | 0.336 | 0.175 | 0.204 | 0.079 | 0.228 |
Notes: The robust standard errors are in parentheses. For statistical significance, *** denotes p < 0.01, ** denotes p < 0.05, and * denotes p < 0.1. The number of observations is rounded to the nearest multiple of 10.
Reading | Math | Self-control (reported by teachers) | Approaches to learning (reported by teachers) | Self-control (reported by parents) | Approaches to learning (reported by parents) | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 (unadjusted) | 4 (fully adjusted) | 1 (unadjusted) | 4 (fully adjusted) | 1 (unadjusted) | 4 (fully adjusted) | 1 (unadjusted) | 4 (fully adjusted) | 1 (unadjusted) | 4 (fully adjusted) | 1 (unadjusted) | 4 (fully adjusted) | |
Gap in 1998 | 1.294*** | 0.696*** | 1.457*** | 0.681*** | 0.317*** | 0.076 | 0.638*** | 0.409*** | 0.471*** | 0.254*** | 0.655*** | 0.221*** |
(0.038) | (0.058) | (0.036) | (0.050) | (0.039) | (0.048) | (0.038) | (0.042) | (0.039) | (0.049) | (0.039) | (0.045) | |
Change in gap by 2010 | -0.020 | -0.075 | -0.154*** | -0.119* | -0.099* | 0.046 | -0.237*** | -0.141* | -0.136** | -0.093 | -0.084 | -0.004 |
(0.051) | (0.082) | (0.049) | (0.070) | (0.055) | (0.081) | (0.053) | (0.074) | (0.053) | (0.080) | (0.053) | (0.070) | |
Controls | ||||||||||||
Demographics | No | Yes | No | Yes | No | Yes | No | Yes | No | Yes | No | Yes |
Education and engagement | No | Yes | No | Yes | No | Yes | No | Yes | No | Yes | No | Yes |
Parental expectations | No | Yes | No | Yes | No | Yes | No | Yes | No | Yes | No | Yes |
School fixed effects | No | Yes | No | Yes | No | Yes | No | Yes | No | Yes | No | Yes |
Observations | 26,660 | 23,880 | 27,570 | 24,710 | 25,790 | 23,170 | 27,200 | 24,380 | 27,280 | 25,040 | 27,290 | 25,050 |
Adjusted R2 | 0.134 | 0.282 | 0.166 | 0.328 | 0.009 | 0.172 | 0.029 | 0.199 | 0.017 | 0.079 | 0.032 | 0.223 |
Notes: Model 1 uses the full sample; Model 4 uses the complete cases sample. Robust standard errors are in parentheses. For statistical significance, *** denotes p < 0.01, ** denotes p < 0.05, and * denotes p < 0.1. The number of observations is rounded to the nearest multiple of 10.
Reading | Math | Self-control (reported by teachers) | Approaches to learning (reported by teachers) | Self-control (reported by parents) | Approaches to learning (reported by parents) | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 (unadjusted) | 4 (fully adjusted) | 1 (unadjusted) | 4 (fully adjusted) | 1 (unadjusted) | 4 (fully adjusted) | 1 (unadjusted) | 4 (fully adjusted) | 1 (unadjusted) | 4 (fully adjusted) | 1 (unadjusted) | 4 (fully adjusted) | |
Gap in 1998 | 1.090*** | 0.384*** | 1.308*** | 0.443*** | 0.419*** | 0.119** | 0.603*** | 0.325*** | 0.443*** | 0.272*** | 0.436*** | 0.073 |
(0.042) | (0.058) | (0.041) | (0.060) | (0.045) | (0.050) | (0.044) | (0.049) | (0.045) | (0.051) | (0.044) | (0.052) | |
Change in gap by 2010 | -0.127** | -0.006 | -0.230*** | -0.060 | 0.049 | 0.228*** | -0.128** | 0.008 | 0.044 | 0.106 | 0.032 | 0.051 |
(0.060) | (0.084) | (0.059) | (0.082) | (0.066) | (0.081) | (0.064) | (0.079) | (0.065) | (0.084) | (0.064) | (0.080) | |
Controls | ||||||||||||
Demographics | No | Yes | No | Yes | No | Yes | No | Yes | No | Yes | No | Yes |
Education and engagement | No | Yes | No | Yes | No | Yes | No | Yes | No | Yes | No | Yes |
Parental expectations | No | Yes | No | Yes | No | Yes | No | Yes | No | Yes | No | Yes |
School fixed effects | No | Yes | No | Yes | No | Yes | No | Yes | No | Yes | No | Yes |
Observations | 28,650 | 26,050 | 29,560 | 26,890 | 27,550 | 25,080 | 29,110 | 26,460 | 28,170 | 27,220 | 28,190 | 27,240 |
Adjusted R2 | 0.103 | 0.276 | 0.143 | 0.321 | 0.023 | 0.174 | 0.036 | 0.199 | 0.019 | 0.079 | 0.019 | 0.226 |
Reading | Math | Self-control (reported by teachers) | Approaches to learning (reported by teachers) | Self-control (reported by parents) | Approaches to learning (reported by parents) | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 (unadjusted) | 4 (fully adjusted) | 1 (unadjusted) | 4 (fully adjusted) | 1 (unadjusted) | 4 (fully adjusted) | 1 (unadjusted) | 4 (fully adjusted) | 1 (unadjusted) | 4 (fully adjusted) | 1 (unadjusted) | 4 (fully adjusted) | |
Gap in 1998 | 0.736*** | 0.347*** | 0.966*** | 0.424*** | 0.324*** | 0.105*** | 0.455*** | 0.241*** | 0.283*** | 0.117*** | 0.583*** | 0.136*** |
(0.028) | (0.034) | (0.027) | (0.031) | (0.029) | (0.035) | (0.028) | (0.033) | (0.029) | (0.037) | (0.028) | (0.033) | |
Change in gap by 2010 | 0.083** | -0.540*** | -0.019 | -0.818*** | -0.068 | -0.126 | -0.058 | -0.244 | -0.044 | -0.248 | 0.085** | -0.026 |
(0.039) | (0.184) | (0.038) | (0.188) | (0.042) | (0.225) | (0.041) | (0.184) | (0.041) | (0.216) | (0.039) | (0.178) | |
Controls | ||||||||||||
Demographics | No | Yes | No | Yes | No | Yes | No | Yes | No | Yes | No | Yes |
Education and engagement | No | Yes | No | Yes | No | Yes | No | Yes | No | Yes | No | Yes |
Parental expectations | No | Yes | No | Yes | No | Yes | No | Yes | No | Yes | No | Yes |
School fixed effects | No | Yes | No | Yes | No | Yes | No | Yes | No | Yes | No | Yes |
Observations | 29,060 | 26,050 | 29,920 | 26,890 | 27,730 | 25,080 | 29,350 | 26,460 | 30,200 | 27,220 | 30,220 | 27,240 |
Adjusted R2 | 0.080 | 0.270 | 0.120 | 0.314 | 0.012 | 0.172 | 0.024 | 0.194 | 0.009 | 0.075 | 0.047 | 0.226 |
Part of school district | Entire school district | Across multiple school districts |
---|---|---|
Austin, Texas | Joplin, Missouri | Eastern Kentucky* |
Boston, Massachusetts | Kalamazoo, Michigan | |
Durham, North Carolina (East Durham) | Montgomery County, Maryland* | |
Minneapolis, Minnesota (North Minneapolis) | Pea Ridge, Arkansas | |
New York, New York | Vancouver, Washington** | |
Orange County, Florida (Tangelo Park) |
*Indicates that while the initiative covers the entire county or region, a portion of the county or region receives more intensive services. **Indicates that the initiative will cover the entire school district under plans to expand.
Source: Case studies published on the Broader, Bolder Approach to Education website (www.boldapproach.org/case-studies)
1. Values are in 2008 dollars.
2. Early investments in education strongly predict adolescent and adult development (Cunha and Heckman 2007; Heckman 2008; Heckman and Kautz 2012). For instance, students with higher levels of behavioral skills learn more in school than peers whose attitudinal skills are less developed (Jennings and DiPrete 2010). In general, as Heckman asserted, “skills beget skills,” meaning that creating basic, foundational knowledge makes it easier to acquire skills in the future (Heckman 2008). Conversely, children who fail to acquire this early foundational knowledge may experience some permanent loss of opportunities to achieve to their full potential. Indeed, scholars have documented a correlation between lack of kindergarten readiness and not reading well at third grade, which is a key point at which failing to read well greatly reduces a child’s odds of completing high school (Fiester 2010; Hernandez 2011).
3. Research by Reardon (2011) had found systematic increases in income gaps among generations. Recent studies by Bassok and Latham (2016) and Reardon and Portilla (2016), however, show narrower achievement gaps at kindergarten entry between a recent cohort and the previous one, and thus a possible discontinuation or interruption of that trend. (Bassok et al. [2016] use an SES construct to compare relative teacher assessments of cognitive and behavioral skills among low-SES children versus all children, adjusted by various other characteristics; Reardon and Portilla [2016] look at relative performance of children in the 90th and 10th income percentiles, and use age-adjusted, standardized, outcome scores.) Research by Carnoy and García (2017) shows persistent social-class gaps, but no solid evidence regarding trends: their findings for students in the fourth and eighth grades, in math and reading, show that achievement gaps neither shrink nor grow consistently (they are a function of the social-class indicator, the grade level, or the subject).
4. Clustering takes into account the fact that children are not randomly distributed, but tend to be concentrated in schools or classrooms with children of the same race, social class, etc. These estimates offer an estimate of gaps within schools. See Appendix B for more details.
5. Results available upon request. See García 2015 for results for all SES-quintiles (the baseline or unadjusted gaps in that report correspond with Model 2 in this paper).
6. The Early Childhood Longitudinal Study asks both parents and teachers to rate children’s abilities across a range of these skills. The specific skills measured may vary between the home and classroom setting. Teachers likely evaluate their students’ skills levels relative to those of other children they teach. Parents, on the other hand, may be basing their expectations on family, community, culture, or other factors.
7. See García 2015 for a discussion of which factors in children’s early lives and their individual and family characteristics (in addition to social class) drive the gaps among children of the 2010 kindergarten class.
8. Note that the SES quintiles are constructed using each year’s distribution, and that changes in the overall and relative distribution may affect the characteristics of children in the different quintiles each year (i.e., there may be some groups who are relatively overrepresented in one or another quintile if changes in the SES components changed over time).
9. The detailed frequency with which parents develop or practice some activities with their children at home and others is available upon request.
10. Literature on expectations and on parental behaviors in the home find that they positively correlate with children’s cognitive development and outcomes (Simpkins, Davis-Kean, and Eccles 2005; Wentzel, Russell, and Baker 2016). This literature acknowledges the multiple pathways through which expectations and behaviors influence educational outcomes, as well as the importance of race, social class, and other factors as moderators of such associations (Davis-Kean 2005; Redd et al. 2004; Wentzel, Russell, and Baker 2016; Yamamoto and Holloway 2010).
11. This may be affected by the fact that the highest number of reported books in 1998 was “more than 200,” while in 2010 parents could choose from more categories, up to “more than 1,000.” We had to use 200 as our cap in order to compare data for the two kindergarten classes.
12. Evidence also points to many other factors that affect children’s school readiness, and these, too, likely changed over this time period. For example, access to prenatal care, health screenings, and nutritional programs could all have affected children’s development differently across these two cohorts, but we do not have access to these data and thus cannot control for them in our study. For links between school readiness, children’s health, and poverty, see AAP COCP 2016; Currie 2009; U.S. HHS and U.S. ED 2016.
13. Models include all quintiles in their specification. Tables that offer a comparison for all quintiles relative to the first quintile are available upon request. We focus the discussion on the gap between the top and bottom.
14. As a result, sample sizes become smaller (see Appendix Table C1). Assuming “missingness” (observations without full information) is completely at random, the findings are representative of the original sample and of the populations they represent. Analytic samples once missingness is accounted for are called the complete case samples. We tested to see whether the unadjusted gaps estimated above with the full sample remained the same when using the complete case samples. For Model 1, we found an average difference of 0.01 sd in the estimates of 1998 SES gaps, and an average difference of 0.02 sd in the estimates of the change in the gaps. For Model 2, the differences were 0.01 sd for the gaps’ estimates and 0.04 for changes in the gaps’ estimates. In terms of statistical significance, there are no significant changes in the estimates associated with the 1998 gaps, but there are two changes in the statistical significance of the estimates associated with the changes in the gaps by 2010 – 2011, and one change in the magnitude of the coefficient. The first change in the statistical significance of the estimates associated with the changes in the gaps by 2010 – 2011 is the change in the gap in approaches to learning as reported by parents, which is statistically significant when using the restricted sample (0.07 sd, at the 10 percent significance level, Model 1); and the second is the change in the gap in math which also becomes statistically significant when using the restricted sample (0.09, at the 10 percent significance level, Model 2). Finally, the one change in the magnitude of the coefficient, in this model, is the estimate of the change in the gap in reading, which increases when using the restricted sample (from 0.12 sd to 0.18 sd). Results are available upon request.
15. These interactions between inputs and time test for whether the influence of inputs in 2010 is smaller than, the same as, or larger than the influence of inputs in 1998. Also, although only the fully specified results are shown, as noted in Appendix B, these sets of controls are entered parsimoniously in order to determine how sensitive gaps and changes in gaps over time are to the inclusion of family characteristics only, to the added inclusion of family investments, and, finally, to the inclusion of parental expectations (for the inclusion of parental expectations, we incorporated interactions of the covariates with time parsimoniously as well). For all outcomes, and focusing on the models without interactions between covariates and time, we find that all gaps in 1998 continuously shrink as we add more controls. For example, in reading, adding family characteristics reduces the gap in 1998 by 11 percent, adding investments further reduces it by 15 percent, and adding expectations further reduces it by 9 percent. In math, these changes equal to 16 percent, 13 percent, and 10 percent. For changes in the gap by 2010–2011, for both reading and math, adding family characteristics and investments shrink the changes in the gaps, but adding expectations slightly increases the estimated coefficients (which are statistically significant for reading, but not for math in these models. For self-control (as reported by teachers) and approaches to learning (by parents), which are the only two noncognitive skills for which the change in the gap is statistically significant, adding family characteristics reduces the change in the “gap [by 2010–2011” coefficient], but adding investments increases it, and adding expectations further increases the changes in the gaps by 2010–2011. These results are not shown in the appendices, but are available upon request.
16. The interactions between parental expectations of children’s educational attainment and the time variable test for whether the influence of expectations in 2010 is smaller, the same, or larger, than the influence of expectations in 1998.
17. The change in the skills gaps by SES in 2010 due to the inclusion of the controls is not directly visible in the tables in this report. To see this, see the comparison of estimates of models MS1–MS3 in García 2015. The change in the skills gaps by SES in 1998 is directly observable in Tables 3 and 4 and is discussed below.
18. The numbers in the “Reduction” column in Table 5 (showing the shares of the SES-based skills gaps that are accounted for by controls) are always higher for 1998 than for 2010.
19. Please note that until this point in the report we have been concerned with SES gaps and not with performance directly (though SES gaps are the result of the influence of SES on performance, which leads to differential performance of children by SES and hence to a performance gap). The paragraphs above emphasize how controls mediate or explain some of the skills gaps by SES, so, in a way, controls inform our analysis of gaps because they reveal how changes in gaps may have been affected by changes in various factors’ capacity to influence performance. Now the focus is on exploring the independent effect of the covariates of interest on performance. In this report, because we address whether the education and selected practices affect outcomes, the main effect is measured for the 1998 cohort, and we measure how it changed between 1998 and 2010. The detailed discussion for the correlation between covariates and outcomes in 2010 is provided in Table 3 in García 2015.
20. This variable indicates whether the child was cared for in a center-based setting during the year prior to the kindergarten year, compared with other options (as explained in García 2015, these alternatives include no nonparental care arrangements; being looked after by a relative, a nonrelative, at home or outside; or a combination of options. Any finding associated with this variable may be interpreted as the association between attending prekindergarten programs, compared with other options, but must be interpreted with caution. In other words, the child may have attended a high-quality prekindergarten program, which could have been either private or public, or a low-quality one, which would have different impacts. He or she might have been placed in (noneducational) child care, either private or public, of high or low quality, for few or many hours per day, with very different implications for his or her development (Barnett 2008; Barnett 2011; Magnuson et al. 2004; Magnuson, Ruhm, and Waldfogel 2007; Nores and Barnett 2010). For the extensive literature explaining the benefits of pre-K schooling, see Camilli et al. 2010, and for a meta-analysis of results, see Duncan and Magnuson 2013. Thus, more detailed information on the characteristics of the nonparental care arrangements (type, quality, and quantity) would help researchers further disentangle the importance of this variable. This additional information would provide a much clearer picture of the effects of early childhood education on the different educational outcomes.
21. Because these associations seemed counterintuitive, we tested whether they were sensitive to the composition of the index. We removed one component of the index at a time and created five alternative measures of other enrichment activities that parents do with their children. The results indicate that the negative association between the index and reading is not sensitive to the components of the index (the coefficients for the main effect, i.e., for the effect in 1998 range between -0.14 and -0.09, are all statistically significant). For math, the associations lose some precision, but retain the negative sign (negative association) in four out of the five cases (minimum coefficient is -0.06). As a caveat, these components do not reflect whether the activities are undertaken by the child or guided by the adult, the time devoted to them, or how much they involve the use of vocabulary or math concepts. The associations could indicate that time spent on nonacademic activities detracts from parents’ time to spend on activities that are intended to boost their reading and math skills, among other possible explanations. These results are available upon request.
22. Note that in this section, “social class” and “socioeconomic status” (SES) are treated as equivalent terms; in the rest of the report, we refer to SES as a construct that is one measure of social class. See Appendices C and D for discussions of two other sensitivity analyses, one based on imputation of missing values for the main analysis in this paper, and the other on the utilization of various metrics of the cognitive variables. Overall, our findings were not sensitive to various multiple imputation tests. In terms of the utilization of different metrics for the cognitive variables, some sensitivity of the point estimates was detected.
23. With certain activities that are already so provided to high-SES children, there may be little room for doing more for them. For example, there are only 24 hours per day to read to your child, so there is a cap on reading from a cap on time. But perhaps there is still room to improve the influence of reading, if, for example, the way reading is done changes.
24. Eight of the 12 districts explored in this paper are the subjects of published case studies. Case studies for the other four are in progress and will be published later this year. When citing information from the published case studies, we cite the specific published study. For the four that are not yet published, we refer to the original sources being used to develop the case studies.
25. Missing or incomplete cells in the table indicate that data were not available on that aspect of student demographics or other characteristics. As per the source note, most data came either from the districts’ websites or from NCES.
26. In the country as a whole, poverty rates, which had been rising prior to 2007, sped up rapidly during the recession and in its aftermath (through 2011–2012), and minority students (mainly Hispanic and Asian) grew as a share of the U.S. public school student body. Between 2000 and 2013, even with a decline in the proportion of black students, the share of the student body that is minority (of black or Hispanic origin) increased from 30.0 percent to 40.5 percent, and the proportion of low-income students (those eligible for free or reduced-price lunch) also increased, up from 38.3 percent of all public school students in 2000 to 52.0 percent in 2013 (Carnoy and García 2017). The Southern Education Foundation revealed a troubling tipping point in 2013: for the first time since such data have been collected, over half of all public school students (51 percent) qualified for free or reduced-priced meals (i.e., over half of students were living in households at or below 185 percent of the federal poverty line). Across the South, shares were much higher, with the highest percentage, 71 percent—or nearly three in four students—in Mississippi (Southern Education Foundation 2015).
27. A full cross-cutting analysis of why and how these districts have employed whole-child/comprehensive educational approaches will be published as part of a book that draws on these case studies.
28. The federal Early Head Start (EHS) program includes both a home visiting and a center-based component, with many of the low-income infants and toddlers served benefiting from a combination of the two. Studies of EHS find improved cognitive, behavioral, and emotional skills for children as well as enhanced parenting behaviors.
29. According to one important source for data on access to and quality of state pre-K programs, the State of Preschool yearbook produced annually by the National Institute for Early Education Research (NIEER) at Rutgers University, as of 2015, 42 states and the District of Columbia were funding 57 programs. Moreover, programs continued to recover from cuts made during the Great Recession; enrollment, quality, and per-pupil spending were all up, on average, compared with the year before, albeit with the important caveat that two major states—Texas and Florida—lost ground, and that “[f]or the nation as a whole,…access to a high-quality preschool program remained highly unequal, and this situation is unlikely to change in the foreseeable future unless many more states follow the leaders” (NIEER 2016).
30. Elaine Weiss interview with Joshua Starr, June 2017.
31. Murnane and Levy 1996; Elaine Weiss interview with Joshua Starr, June 2017.
32. In recent years, a growing number of reports have emerged that some charter schools—which are technically public schools and often tout their successes in serving disadvantaged students—keep out students unlikely to succeed through complex application processes, fees, parent participation contracts, and other mechanisms, and then further winnow the student body of such students by pushing them out when they struggle academically or behaviorally. For more on this topic, see Burris 2017, PBS NewsHour 2015, and Simon 2013.
33. See AIR 2011 and Sparks 2017. The federal school improvement models, in order of severity (from lightest to most stringent) are termed “transformation,” “turnaround,” “restart,” and “closure” (AIR 2011, 3).
34. While the cut score on any given assessment/test needed for a student to be considered “proficient” is an arbitrary one, and, in Minnesota and many other states, changes from year to year and from one assessment to another, these gains are a helpful indicator of program effectiveness, as they are comparable over the time period described.
35. Joplin statistics are from internal data produced for the superintendent at that time that are no longer available.
36. Attendance Works , a national campaign to reduce chronic absence, points to a range of studies that document and explain the connections between chronic absenteeism, student physical and mental health, and student achievement. Areas of research include elementary school absenteeism, middle and high school absenteeism, health issues, and state and local data on how these problems play out, among others.
37. Elaine Weiss interview with C.J. Huff, June 2016.
38. See Appendix D for a discussion of results using other metrics for reading and math achievement. Results are not meaningfully different across metrics, though the point estimates differ slightly.
39. This last feature will be explored in a companion paper to this one, as soon as the necessary information is released by NCES. (As Tourangeau et al. [2013] note, the assessment scores for the 2010–2011 cohort are not directly comparable with those for the 1998–1999 cohort. We are waiting on the availability of this data to conduct a companion study that allows us to learn whether starting levels of knowledge rose over these years, and what the relative gains were for different demographic groups.)
40. We acknowledge that there are multiple noneducation public policy and economic policy areas to be called upon to address the problems studied in this report, namely, all the ones that ensure other factors that correlate with low-SES are attended, and, obviously, the ones that lead to fewer low-SES children. These other policies could help ensure that more children grow up in contexts with sufficient resources and healthy surroundings, or would leave fewer children without built-in supports at home that need to be compensated for afterwards. We made these points in two early studies, and in the policy brief companion to this study (García 2015; García and Weiss 2015; García and Weiss 2017). A similar comprehensive approach in terms of policy recommendations was used by Putnam (2015).
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Introduction.
Our research benefits from the existence of two companion studies conducted by the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES), the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study of the Kindergarten Class of 1998–1999 and the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study of the Kindergarten Class of 2010–2011 (hereafter, ECLS-K 1998–1999 and ECLS-K 2010–2011). The data from these studies come with multiple advantages and a few disadvantages.
The studies follow two nationally representative samples of children starting in their kindergarten year and continuing through their elementary school years (eighth grade for 1998–1999 cohort and fifth grade for the 2010–2011 cohort). The tracking of students over time is one of the most valuable features of the data. The studies include assessments of the children’s cognitive performance and knowledge as well as skills that belong in the category of noncognitive, or social and emotional, skills. The studies also include information on teachers and schools (provided by teachers and administrators) and interviews with parents.
Another valuable feature of the data is the availability of two ECLS-K studies (ECLS-K 1998–1999 and ECLS-K 2010–2011), which allows for cross-comparisons “of two nationally representative kindergarten classes experiencing different policy, educational, and demographic environments” (Tourangeau et al. 2013). The two studies are 12 years apart, or a full school cycle apart: when the 2010–2011 kindergarten class was starting school, the 1998–1999 class was starting the grade leading to their graduation. A comparison of the studies thus offers insightful information about the consequences of changes in the system that may have occurred during an entire cohort’s school life. For the 2010 study, the sample included 18,174 children in 968 schools. i The 1998 study sample included 21,409 children in 903 schools. ii
This existence of data from two cohorts is also a limitation to the current study, as explained by Tourangeau et al. (2013), who note that the assessment scores for the 2010–2011 class are not directly comparable with those developed for the class of 1998–1999. Although the IRT (Item Response Theory) procedures used in the analysis of data were similar across the two studies, each study incorporated different items, which means that the resulting scales are different. Tourangeau et al. (2013) state that “a subsequent release of the ECLS-K: 2010–2011 data will include IRT scores that are comparable with the ECLS-K 1998 cohort.” Up to the point of publication of the current study, this information had not yet been released, and we use standardized scores, instead of raw scores, for the outcomes examined. We can assess changes in the relative position in a distribution (i.e., how far apart high- and low-SES children are in 1998 and how far apart high- and low-SES children are in 2010), but not overall changes in their performance (i.e., it is not possible to ascertain whether performance has improved overall, or if gaps are smaller or larger due to an improvement in performance of children at the low end (specifically the lowest fifth) of the distribution or due to a decrease in the performance of children at the high end (highest fifth) of the distribution, etc.). A full comparison remains to be produced, upon data availability.
We use data for the first wave of each study, corresponding with fall kindergarten (or school entry).
For the analyses, we use the by-year standardized scores corresponding to the fall semester. (The 1998 IRT scale scores for reading and mathematics achievement and assessments of noncognitive skills are standardized using the 1998 distribution and its mean and sd; for 2010, we use the mean and sd of the 2010 distribution.)
Cognitive skills are assessed with instruments that measure each child’s:
We use the term “principal” to identify a set of noncognitive skills that are measured by both the ECLS-K 1998–1999 and 2010–2011 surveys, and that have been relatively extensively used in research.
Teachers are asked to assess each child’s:
Parents are asked to assess their child’s:
For the analyses, we use the following set of covariates. The definitions, and the coding used for the covariates, by year, are shown in Appendix Table A1 .
Gaps by socioeconomic status.
The expressions below show the specifications used to estimate the socioeconomic status–based (SES-based) performance gaps. For any achievement outcome A , we estimate four models:
These estimates build on all the available observations (i.e., only those children who have missing values in the outcome variables are eliminated from the analysis).
Because of lack of response in some of the covariates used as predictors of performance, we construct a common sample with observations with no missing information in any of the variables of interest (see information about missing data for each variable in Appendix Table C1 ). We estimate two more models: iii
The equation below shows the equation we estimate for Models 1 through 4.
Following standard approaches in this field, we use multiple imputation to impute missing values in both the independent and dependent variables, for the analysis of skills gaps and changes in them from 1998 to 2010 by socioeconomic status (main analysis). See share of missing data by variable in Appendix Table C1 . We use the mi commands in Stata 14, using chained equations, which jointly model all functional terms. The number of iterations was set up equal to 20. Imputation is performed by year.
Our functional form of the imputation model is specified using SES, gender, race, disability, age, type of family, number of books, educational activities, and parental expectations, as well as the original cognitive and noncognitive variables, as variables to be imputed. We use various specifications, combining different sets of auxiliary variables, mi impute methods, and other parameters, to capture any sensitivity of the results to the characteristics of the model. For example, income, family size, and ELL status are set as auxiliary variables and used in several of the imputation models. Another imputation option that was altered across models is the use of weights, as we ran out of imputation models using weights and not using them.
In the imputation model, in order to impute categorical variables’ missingness, we use the option augment, to prevent the large number of categorical variables to be imputed from causing problems of perfect prediction (StataCorp. 2015). The rest of the variables are first imputed as continuous variables. In a second exercise, we also impute SES and educational expectations as ordinal variables (also using the option augment).
In order to calculate the standardized dependent variables, we use the variables derived from the imputation variables (also known as passive imputation). This “fills in only the underlying imputation variables and computes the respective functional terms from the imputed variables” (StataCorp. 2015). In one case, we imputed the dependent variables directly as continuous variables (though we anticipated that the distribution of the scores imputed this way would not necessarily have a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1).
Using the imputed data, we estimate Models 1 through 4 following the specifications explained above (from no regressors to fully specified models).
The main findings of our analysis are not sensitive to missing data imputation. The estimates of the gaps in 1998 and the changes in the gaps from 1998 to 2010 are consistent across models in terms of statistical significance. There are some minor changes in the sizes of the estimated coefficients, especially those associated with the changes in the gaps (though all are statistically not different from 0, as discussed in the report using the results from the analysis with the complete cases). There are also some minor changes in the standard errors, though they are small enough to widen the coefficients’ statistical bandwidth to not include the 0.
Children’s reading and mathematics skills are measured using several different metrics in ECLS-K. Among these, the best-known or more commonly used metrics in research are the IRT-based theta scores and the IRT-based scale scores (IRT stands for Item Response Theory). NCES provides data users with definitions of these metrics and recommendations on how to appropriately choose among the different metrics. NCES explains that both theta and IRT-based scale scores are valid indicators of ability. This makes them suitable for research purposes, even though each is expressed in its own unit of measurement. NCES recommends that analysts “consider the nature of their research questions, the type of statistical analysis to be conducted, the population of interest, and the audience” when choosing the appropriate score for analysis (see Tourangeau et al. 2013).
Although nothing would indicate that this could be the case, our work noted that results of analyses such as the one developed in this study are in some ways sensitive to the metrics used as dependent variables. v Thus, the purpose of this appendix is to illustrate the differences in the results associated with different analytic decisions in terms of the metrics used. As we will see, in essence, point estimates depend on the metric used, but the results do not change in a meaningful way and conclusions and implications remain unchanged. That is, although caution is required when interpreting the results obtained using different combinations of metrics, procedures (including standardization), and data waves, it is important to state that the main conclusions of this study— that social-class gaps in cognitive and noncognitive skills are large and have persisted over time — hold . So do the policy recommendations derived from those findings: sufficient, integrated, and sustained over-time efforts to tackle early gaps in a more effective manner.
NCES makes the following recommendations for researchers who are choosing among scales (see Tourangeau et al. 2013): vi
When choosing scores to use in analysis, researchers should consider the nature of their research questions, the type of statistical analysis to be conducted, the population of interest, and the audience. […] The IRT-based scale scores […] are overall measures of achievement. They are appropriate for both cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses. They are useful in examining differences in overall achievement among subgroups of children in a given data collection round or in different rounds, as well as in analysis looking at correlations between achievement and child, family, and school characteristics. […] Results expressed in terms of scale score points, scale score gains, or an average scale score may be more easily interpretable by a wider audience than results based on the theta scores. The IRT-based theta scores are overall measures of ability. They are appropriate for both cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses. They are useful in examining differences in overall achievement among subgroups of children in a given data collection round or across rounds, as well as in analysis looking at correlations between achievement and child, family, and school characteristics. […] The theta scores may be more desirable than the scale scores for use in a multivariate analysis because generally their distribution tends to be more normal than the distribution of the scale scores. However, for a broader audience of readers unfamiliar with IRT modeling techniques, the metric of the theta scores (from -6 to 6) may be less readily interpretable. […]
The two scores are defined as follows (see Tourangeau et al. 2013, section “3.1 Direct Cognitive Assessment: Reading, Mathematics, Science”):
The IRT-based scale score is an estimate of the number of items a child would have answered correctly in each data collection round if he or she had been administered all of the questions for that domain that were included in the kindergarten and first-grade assessments. To calculate the IRT-based overall scale score for each domain, a child’s theta is used to predict a probability for each assessment item that the child would have gotten that item correct. Then, the probabilities for all the items fielded as part of the domain in every round are summed to create the overall scale score. Because the computed scale scores are sums of probabilities, the scores are not integers. The IRT-based theta score is an estimate of a child’s ability in a particular domain (e.g., reading, mathematics, science, or SERS) based on his or her performance on the items he or she was actually administered. […] The theta scores are reported on a metric ranging from -6 to 6, with lower scores indicating lower ability and higher scores indicating higher ability. Theta scores tend to be normally distributed because they represent a child’s latent ability and are not dependent on the difficulty of the items included within a specific test.
Reardon (2007) describes the calculation of the theta scores in the following manner: vii
For each test [math and reading], a three-parameter IRT model was used to estimate each student’s latent ability…at each wave…. The IRT model assumes that each student’s probability of answering a given test item correctly is a function of the student’s ability and the characteristics [discrimination, difficulty, and guessability] of the item…. Given the pattern of students’ responses to the items on the test that they are given, the IRT model provides estimates of both the person-specific latent abilities at each wave… and the item parameters. (Reardon 2007, 10) viii
He also notes that “[b]ecause the ECLS-K tests contain many more ‘difficult’ items than ‘easy’ items, the relationship between theta and scale scores is not linear (a unit difference in theta corresponds to a larger difference in scale scores at theta=1 than at theta=-1, for example). The scale scores are difficult to interpret as an interval-scale metric (or are an interval-scaled metric only with respect to the specific set of items on the ECLS-K tests),” while he shows that the “theta scores are interval-scale metrics, in a behaviorally-meaningful sense” (Reardon 2007, 11, 13). ix
For the analyses, both the scale and the theta scores need to be standardized by year (the original variables are not directly comparable because they rely on different instruments, as explained by NCES, and the resulting standardized variables have mean 0 and standard deviation 1). This is a common practice in the education field, as it allows researchers to use data that come from different studies and would not have a common scale otherwise. We need to take into consideration that the underlying units of measurement for each variable are different, but after standardization, the metrics are common, expressed in standard deviations and represent the population’s distribution of abilities.
The distributions of the scale and theta scores are shown in Appendix Figures D1 and D2 . In each figure, the plots reflect a more normally distributed pattern for the theta scores (right panel) than for the scale scores (left panel). The companion table, Appendix Table D1 , shows the range of variation for the four outcomes (mean and standard deviations are 0 and 1 as per construction).
We next offer a comparison of the results obtained when using the scale scores versus using the theta scores ( Appendix Table D2 ). We highlight the following main similarities and differences between the results obtained using the scale scores and the results using the theta scores.
In Appendix Table D3 , we compare the results obtained using the different scales and the different proxies of socioeconomic status (our composite SES index, mother’s education, number of books, and household income).
There are two other significant pieces of information affecting the cognitive scores in more recent documentation released by NCES. In 2015, NCES announced in its ECLS-K User’s Manual that a
change in methodology required a re-calibration and re-reporting of the kindergarten reading scores since the release of the base-year file. Therefore, the kindergarten reading theta scores included in the K-1 data file are calculated differently than the previously released kindergarten theta scores and replace the kindergarten reading theta scores included in the base-year data file. The modeling approach stayed the same for mathematics and science, so the recalculation of kindergarten mathematics and science theta scores was not needed. (Tourangeau et al. 2015)
Following up on this, the most recent (2017) data user’s manual explains that
The method used to compute the theta scores allows for the calculation of theta for a given round that will not change based on later administrations of the assessments (which is not true for the scale scores, as described in the next section). Therefore, for any given child, the kindergarten, first-grade, and second-grade theta scores provided in subsequent data files will be the same as theta scores released in earlier data files , with one exception: the reading thetas provided in the base-year data file . After the kindergarten-year data collection, the methodology used to calibrate and compute reading scores changed; therefore, the reading thetas reported in the base-year file are not the same as the kindergarten reading thetas provided in the files with later-round data [emphasis added]. Any analysis involving kindergarten reading theta scores and reading theta scores from later rounds, for example an analysis looking at growth in reading knowledge and skills between the spring of kindergarten and the spring of first grade, should use the kindergarten reading theta scores from a data file released after the base year. The reading theta scores released in the kindergarten-year data file are appropriate for analyses involving only the kindergarten round data; analyses conducted with only data released in the base-year file are not incorrect, since those analyses do not compare kindergarten scores to scores in later rounds that were computed differently. However, now that the recomputed kindergarten theta scores are available in the kindergarten through first-grade and kindergarten through second-grade data files, it is recommended that researchers conduct any new analyses with the recomputed kindergarten reading theta scores. For more information on the methods used to calculate theta scores, see the ECLS-K: 2011 First-Grade and Second-Grade Psychometric Report (Najarian et al. forthcoming). (Tourangeau et al. 2017)
Therefore, because of these changes in NCES methodology and reporting, and in light of the comparisons in this appendix, one could expect additional slight changes in the estimates using the IRT-theta scores for reading for kindergarten if using rounds of data posterior to the first round (and probably if using the IRT-scale scores as well, as these values are derived from the theta scores), relative to the first data file of ECLS-K: 2010-2011 released by NCES in 2013. We would not necessarily expect, though, any changes when using the standardized transformation of those scores, because NCES’s documentation does not mention changes to the distribution of the scores, only to their values. We will explore these issues further upon the release of the scores that are comparable across the two ECLS-K studies without any transformation.
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The needs of children in Austin Independent School District (AISD) schools with the highest concentrations of poor, immigrant, and non-English-speaking families are supported through a combination of parent-organizing (schools with parent-organizing programs, led by the nonprofit Austin Interfaith, form a network of “Alliance Schools”), intensive embedding of social and emotional learning (SEL) in all aspects of school policy and practice, and the transformation of schools into “community schools” (i.e., schools that are hubs for the provision of academic, health, and social services).
The City Connects program provides targeted academic, social, emotional, and health supports to every child in 20 of the city’s schools with the highest shares of low-income, black, Hispanic, and immigrant students.
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The Northside Achievement Zone (NAZ) is a Promise Neighborhood, a designation awarded by the U.S. Department of Education Promise Neighborhoods program to some of the most distressed neighborhoods in the nation. Through the program, children and families who live in the 13-by-18 block NAZ receive individualized supports.
Through a collaboration between The Children’s Aid Society and the New York City Department of Education, 16 community schools in some of the most disadvantaged neighborhoods in three of the city’s five boroughs provide wraparound health, nutrition, mental health, and other services to students along with enriching in-and-out-of-school experiences, amplified by extensive parental and community engagement.
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Joplin’s Bright Futures initiative (which has spawned dozens of other Bright Futures affiliate districts under a Bright Futures USA umbrella since it launched in 2010) has a rapid response component that addresses children’s basic needs (within 24 hours of a need being reported), while strong school–community partnerships help meet students’ longer-term needs. Bright Futures also provides meaningful service learning opportunities in every school.
The “Kalamazoo Promise,” a guarantee by a group of anonymous local philanthropists to provide full college scholarships in perpetuity for graduates of the district’s public high schools brought Kalamazoo Public Schools (KPS), the city, and the community together to develop a set of comprehensive supports that enable more students to use the scholarships.
All students in Montgomery County Public Schools (MCPS) benefit from zoning laws that advance integration and strong union–district collaboration on an enriching, equity-oriented curriculum. These efforts are bolstered by extra funding and wraparound supports for high-needs schools and communities.
The Pea Ridge School District, a small suburban–rural district outside Fayetteville, Arkansas, is among the newer affiliates of Bright Futures USA, a national umbrella group that grew out of Bright Futures Joplin. As a Bright Futures affiliate, Pea Ridge is making good progress toward identifying and meeting students’ basic needs, engaging the community to meet longer-term needs, and making service learning a core component of school policy and practice.
Family and Community Resource Centers (FCRCs) currently serve 16 of the highest-needs Vancouver Public Schools (VPS) district schools, with mobile and lighter-touch support in other schools and plans to expand districtwide by 2020.
Eastern (appalachian) kentucky.
A federal Promise Neighborhood grant helps Berea College’s Partners for Education provide intensive supports for students and their families in four counties in the Eastern (Appalachian) region of Kentucky and provide lighter-touch supports in an additional 23 surrounding counties. (Berea College, which was established in 1855 by abolitionist education advocates, is unique among U.S. higher-education institutions. It admits only economically disadvantaged, academically promising students, most of whom are the first in their families to obtain postsecondary education, and it charges no tuition, so every student admitted can afford to enroll and graduates debt-free.)
Covariates from these models : ecls-k 1998--1999 and 2010--2011.
ECLS-K 1998–1999 | ECLS-K 2010–2011 |
---|---|
The SES is a composite variable reflecting the socioeconomic status of the household at the time of data collection. SES was created using components such as father/male guardian’s education and occupation; mother/female guardian’s education and occupation; and household income (see Tourangeau et al. 2009, 7-23–7-30). We use five SES quintiles dummies that are available. We use the following labels in the tables and figures: “Low SES” indicates the first or lowest socioeconomic quintile, “Middle-low SES” indicates the second-lowest quintile, “Middle SES” is the third quintile, “High-middle SES” indicates the fourth quintile, and “High SES” represents the highest or fifth quintile. | The construct is based on three different components (five total variables), including the educational attainment of parents or guardians, occupational prestige (determined by a score), and household income (see more details in Tourangeau et al. 2013, 7-56–7-60). We use the quintile indicators based on the continuous SES variable (we construct them). |
Information about whether the child’s household lives in poverty is obtained from a household-level poverty variable. The household’s income is compared with census poverty thresholds for 2006 (which vary by household size) and the household is considered to be in poverty if total household income is below the poverty threshold determined by the U.S. Census Bureau poverty threshold (Tourangeau et al. 2009, 7-24 and 7-25). | Information about whether the child’s household lives in poverty is obtained from a household-level poverty variable. This variable indicates whether the household income is below 200 percent of the U.S. Census Bureau poverty threshold. More details are provided in Tourangeau et al. 2013 (7-53 and 7-54). |
A variable indicates whether the student is a girl or a boy. | A dummy indicator represents whether the child is a boy or a girl. |
A variable indicates the race/ethnicity of the student—whether the child is white, black, Hispanic, Asian, or another ethnicity. Hispanic children are divided into two groups, those whose families speak English at home and those whose families do not. (This latter decomposition was first described and utilized by Nores and Barnett [2014] and Nores and García [2014]). | Our analysis includes dummy indicators of whether the race/ethnicity of the child is white, black, Hispanic, Asian, or “other.” Hispanic children are divided into two groups, those whose families speak English at home and those whose families do not. |
Age of the student calculated in months. | Age of the student is calculated in months. |
A variable indicates whether the language the student speaks at home is a language other than English. | Our analysis includes a dummy indicator that represents whether the language spoken in the child’s home is a language other than English (we call a child in this setting an English language learner, or ELL), versus whether the language spoken at home is English or English and other language(s). |
A variable indicates whether the child has a disability that has been diagnosed by a professional (composite variable). Questions in the parents’ interview about disabilities ask about the child’s ability to pay attention and learn, overall activity level, overall behavior and relationships to adults, overall emotional behavior (such as behaviors indicating anxiety or depression), ability to communicate, difficulty in hearing and understanding speech, and eyesight (Tourangeau et al. 2009, 7-17). | A dummy indicator represents whether the child has been diagnosed with a disability. |
A variable indicates whether the child is living with two parents, or with one parent or in another family structure. | A variable indicates whether the child lives with two parents versus living with one parent or in another family composition. |
A dummy indicator represents whether the child was cared for in a center-based setting or attended Head Start during the year prior to the kindergarten year, compared with other options. These alternatives include no nonparental care arrangements and care provided through other means (by a relative or a nonrelative, at home or outside the home, or a combination of options). | Our analysis includes a dummy indicator of whether the child was cared for in a center-based setting (including Head Start) during the year prior to the kindergarten year, compared with other options. These alternatives include no nonparental care arrangements and care provided through other means (by a relative or a nonrelative, at home or outside the home, or a combination of options). Any finding associated with this variable may be interpreted as the association between attending prekindergarten (pre-K) programs, compared with other options, but must be interpreted with caution. These coefficients should not be interpreted as the impact of pre-K schooling because the variable’s information is limited and the model uses it as a control-only variable. For a review of the extensive literature explaining the benefits of pre-K schooling, see Camilli et al. 2010. |
This index captures the variance on a wide set of family early literacy practices. Using an index of activities instead of the underlying questions the index is composed of overcomes potential problems of multicolinearity and therefore improves the properties of our specifications. (This has an alpha of 0.6716). In particular, parents are asked the frequency (“not at all,” “once or twice a week,” “three to six times a week,” or “every day”) with which they engage with the child in the following activities: reading books; telling stories; singing songs; and talking about nature or doing science projects. Parents are also asked how often the child reads picture books outside of school, and reads to or pretends to read to himself or to others outside of school. | This index captures the variance on a wide set of family early literacy practices. Using an index of activities instead of the underlying questions the index is composed of overcomes potential problems of multicolinearity and therefore improves the properties of our specifications. (This has an alpha of 0.6948.) In particular, parents are asked the frequency (“not at all,” “once or twice a week,” “three to six times a week,” or “every day”) with which they engage with the child in the following activities: reading books; telling stories; singing songs; and talking about nature or doing science projects. Parents are also asked how often the child reads picture books outside of school, and reads to or pretends to read to himself or to others outside of school. |
Parents are asked the frequency (“not at all,” “once or twice a week,” “three to six times a week,” or “every day”) with which they engage with the child in the following activities: playing games or doing puzzles; playing sports; building something or playing with construction toys; doing arts and crafts; or doing science projects. (This has an alpha of 0.5972.) | Parents are asked the frequency (“not at all,” “once or twice a week,” “three to six times a week,” or “every day”) with which they engage with the child in the following activities: playing games or doing puzzles; playing sports; building something or playing with construction toys; doing arts and crafts; or doing science projects. (This has an alpha of 0.5527.) |
This is coded as “below high school (8th–12th grades); high school graduate or equivalent; vocational/technical program/some college; bachelor’s degree/graduate or professional school with no degree; and graduate (master’s, doctorate, or professional) degree.” | This is coded as “below high-school (8th–12th grades); high school graduate or equivalent; vocational/technical program/some college; bachelor’s degree/graduate or professional school with no degree; and graduate (master’s, doctorate, or professional) degree”. |
We adjust the income brackets in 2010 for inflation. We use the continuous variable to construct the 18 categories to make it comparable to the variable in 2010. We calculate a continuous income variable using the midpoint between the minimum and maximum for each category (equal to the values in 2010 adjusted by inflation). We calculate the income quintiles using this variable. | The original income variable comes in 18 categories. We calculate a continuous income variable using the midpoint between the minimum and maximum for each category. We calculate the income quintiles using this variable. |
This is coded as “HS or less; 2 or more years of college; BA; MA; PHD or MD.” Parents are asked, “How far in school do you expect your child to go? Would you say you expect {him/her} to {attend or complete a certain level}?” | This is coded as “HS or less; 2 or more years of college/attend a vocational or technical school; BA; MA; PHD or MD.” |
This is represented by a continuous variable (0–200) and a categorical variable coded as “0 to 25; 26 to 50; 51 to 100; 101 to 199; more than 200.” For the regression analysis, the variable is divided by 10. Parents are asked, “About how many children’s books {does {CHILD} have/are} in your home now, including library books? Please only include books that are for children.” | This is represented by a continuous variable (0–200) and a categorical variable coded as “0 to 25; 26 to 50; 51 to 100; 101 to 199; more than 200.” For the regression analysis, the variable is divided by 10. |
Source: ECLS-K, kindergarten classes of 1998–1999 and 2010–2011 (National Center for Education Statistics)
1998 | 2010 | |
---|---|---|
Variable | Percent missing | Percent missing |
Race/ethnicity | ||
White | 0.2 | 0.5 |
Black | 0.2 | 0.5 |
Hispanic | 0.2 | 0.5 |
Hispanic English language learner (ELL) | 6.6 | 11.8 |
Hispanic English speaker | 6.6 | 11.8 |
Asian | 0.2 | 0.5 |
Others | 0.2 | 0.5 |
Socioeconomic status | 5.9 | 11.9 |
Family composition: Not living with two parents | 15.5 | 26.3 |
Mother’s education | 7.5 | 42.8 |
Pre-K care, center-based | 16.8 | 17.4 |
“Literacy/reading activities” index | 15.6 | 26.4 |
“Other activities” index | 15.6 | 26.5 |
Parents’ expectations for children’s educational attainment | 16.1 | 26.5 |
Number of books | 16.3 | 26.7 |
Outcomes | ||
Reading | 17.7 | 13.8 |
Math | 13.0 | 14.2 |
Self-control (by teachers) | 13.8 | 25.4 |
Approaches to learning (by teachers) | 10.4 | 18.7 |
Self-control (by parents) | 15.8 | 27.3 |
Approaches to learning (by parents) | 15.8 | 27.3 |
Note: For detailed information about the construction of these variables, see Appendix Table A1.
Scale scores, 1998 (left) and 2010 (right).
1998 | 2010 | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
N | (Mean, sd) | Min | Max | N | (Mean, sd) | Min | Max | |
Scale score–reading | 17,620 | (0,1) | -1.39 | 10.13 | 15,670 | (0,1) | -2.4 | 4.06 |
Theta score–reading | 17,620 | (0,1) | -2.72 | 4.30 | 15,670 | (0,1) | -3.47 | 5.01 |
Scale score–math | 18,640 | (0,1) | -1.69 | 9.86 | 15,600 | (0,1) | -2.22 | 4.23 |
Theta score–math | 18,640 | (0,1) | -3.13 | 4.48 | 15,600 | (0,1) | -5.78 | 6.28 |
Note: N is rounded to the nearest multiple of 10.
Model 1 (unadjusted) | Model 4 (fully adjusted) | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Full sample | Restricted sample | |||||||
Scale scores | Theta scores | Scale scores | Theta scores | |||||
Reading | Math | Reading | Math | Reading | Math | Reading | Math | |
Gap in 1998 | 1.071*** | 1.258*** | 1.233*** | 1.330*** | 0.596*** | 0.610*** | 0.684*** | 0.632*** |
(0.024) | (0.022) | (0.024) | (0.022) | (0.031) | (0.031) | (0.032) | (0.031) | |
Change in gap by 2010 | 0.098*** | -0.008 | -0.052 | -0.078** | 0.080 | 0.051 | -0.016 | -0.002 |
(0.033) | (0.032) | (0.033) | (0.032) | (0.052) | (0.048) | (0.054) | (0.050) | |
N | 30,950 | 31,850 | 30,950 | 31,850 | 26,050 | 26,890 | 26,050 | 26,890 |
Adj.R2 | 0.152 | 0.189 | 0.170 | 0.197 | 0.293 | 0.336 | 0.336 | 0.353 |
Notes: Standard errors are in the parentheses. N is rounded to the nearest multiple of 10. Asterisks denote statistical significance: *** p < 0.01, ** p < 0.05, * p < 0.1.
Source: ECLS-K, kindergarten classes of 1998-1999 and 2010–2011 (National Center for Education Statistics)
Model 1 (unadjusted) | Model 4 (fully adjusted) | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Full sample | Restricted sample | ||||||||
Scale scores | Theta scores | Scale scores | Theta scores | ||||||
Reading | Math | Reading | Math | Reading | Math | Reading | Math | ||
By SES | Gap in 1998 | 1.071*** | 1.258*** | 1.233*** | 1.330*** | 0.596*** | 0.610*** | 0.684*** | 0.632*** |
(0.024) | (0.022) | (0.024) | (0.022) | (0.031) | (0.031) | (0.032) | (0.031) | ||
Change in gap by 2010 | 0.098*** | -0.008 | -0.052 | -0.078** | 0.080 | 0.051 | -0.016 | -0.002 | |
(0.033) | (0.032) | (0.033) | (0.032) | (0.052) | (0.048) | (0.054) | (0.050) | ||
By mother’s education | Gap in 1998 | 1.294*** | 1.457*** | 1.412*** | 1.502*** | 0.696*** | 0.681*** | 0.739*** | 0.685*** |
(0.038) | (0.036) | (0.038) | (0.035) | (0.058) | (0.050) | (0.048) | (0.044) | ||
Change in gap by 2010 | -0.020 | -0.154*** | -0.135*** | -0.218*** | -0.075 | -0.119* | -0.135* | -0.182*** | |
(0.051) | (0.049) | (0.051) | (0.048) | (0.082) | (0.070) | (0.075) | (0.067) | ||
By number of books | Gap in 1998 | 0.736*** | 0.966*** | 0.847*** | 1.032*** | 0.347*** | 0.424*** | 0.388*** | 0.438*** |
(0.028) | (0.027) | (0.028) | (0.026) | (0.034) | (0.031) | (0.033) | (0.031) | ||
Change in gap by 2010 | 0.083** | -0.019 | -0.015 | -0.088** | -0.540*** | -0.818*** | -0.594*** | -0.829*** | |
(0.039) | (0.038) | (0.039) | (0.038) | (0.184) | (0.188) | (0.181) | (0.174) | ||
By household income | Gap in 1998 | 1.090*** | 1.308*** | 1.214*** | 1.320*** | 0.384*** | 0.443*** | 0.429*** | 0.439*** |
(0.042) | (0.041) | (0.042) | (0.041) | (0.058) | (0.060) | (0.049) | (0.050) | ||
Change in gap by 2010 | -0.127** | -0.230*** | -0.247*** | -0.292*** | -0.006 | -0.060 | -0.058 | -0.099 | |
(0.060) | (0.059) | (0.060) | (0.059) | (0.084) | (0.082) | (0.076) | (0.072) |
Notes: Standard errors are in parentheses. Asterisks denote statistical significance: *** p < 0.01, ** p < 0.05, * p < 0.1.
i. The sample design used to select the individuals in the study was a three-stage process that involved using primary sampling units and schools with probabilities proportional to the number of children and the selection of a fixed number of children per school. In the last stage, children enrolled in kindergarten or ungraded schools were selected within each sampled school. A clustered design was used to limit the number of geographic areas and to minimize the number of schools and the costs of the study (Tourangeau et al. 2013, 4-1).
ii. The dataset in the first year followed a stratified design structure (Ready 2010, 274), in which the primary sampling units were geographic areas consisting of counties or groups of counties. About 1,000 schools — 903 for 1998 and 968 for 2010—were selected, and about 24 children per school were surveyed. Assessment of the children was performed by trained evaluators, while parents were surveyed over the telephone. Teachers and school administrators completed the questionnaires in their schools.
iii. As a sensitivity check, we estimate Models 1 and 2 using Models 1’s and Model 2’s specifications but using the restricted sample (these results are not shown here, but are available upon request).
iv. As a sensitivity check, we estimate Model 3 parsimoniously, by including family characteristics only, and then adding family investments (prekindergarten care arrangements, early literacy practices at home, and number of books the child has), and then adding parental expectations (with and without interactions with time); results of the sensitivity check are not shown, but are available upon request).
v. We refer to the fact that we are using the same data and that the scale and theta scores are based on the same instruments and are not independent from each other. Advice on this possibility is found in Reardon (2007), who cites work by Murnane et al. (2006) and Selzer, Frank, and Bryk (1994) that also warn about this option.
vi. From NCES: “IRT uses the pattern of right and wrong responses to the items actually administered in an assessment and the difficulty, discriminating ability, and guess-ability of each item to estimate each child’s ability on the same continuous scale. IRT has several advantages over raw number-right scoring. By using the overall pattern of right and wrong responses and the characteristics of each item to estimate ability, IRT can adjust for the possibility of a low-ability child guessing several difficult items correctly. If answers on several easy items are wrong, the probability of a correct answer on a difficult item would be quite low. Omitted items are also less likely to cause distortion of scores, as long as enough items have been answered to establish a consistent pattern of right and wrong answers. Unlike raw number-right scoring, which treats omitted items as if they had been answered incorrectly, IRT procedures use the pattern of responses to estimate the probability of a child providing a correct response for each assessment question” (Tourangeau et al. 2017, 3-2).
vii. The quoted text is abridged to remove variables and formulas specific to Reardon’s study and not central here.
viii. Also, “the estimated scale score is the estimated number of questions the student would have gotten correct if he or she had been asked all of the items on the test. The estimated scale score is obtained by summing the predicted probabilities of a correct response over all items, given the student’s estimated theta score and the estimated item parameters” (Reardon 2007, 11).
ix. They are equally spaced units along the scale without a predefined zero point.
See related work on Student achievement | Education | Educational inequity | Children | Economic inequality | Inequality and Poverty | Early childhood
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A Correction to this article was published on 20 November 2020
This article has been updated
School and neighborhood segregation are intertwined in complex ways. Schools reflect segregated neighborhoods, and school considerations reinforce neighborhood segregation. Over the past 25 years, racial segregation in neighborhoods and schools has slightly declined in terms of sorting, though children remain racially isolated in their neighborhoods and schools. Income segregation between schools, school districts, and neighborhoods has increased among children. Recent educational policy and demographic changes may break the link between neighborhood and school segregation. As population diversity increases, the proliferation of school choice leads schools and neighborhoods to resemble one another less, with schools becoming more segregated than their local neighborhoods. Regardless of the complicated and changing ways neighborhood and school segregation shape and reshape one another, segregation in both contexts remains high in the twenty-first century. Drawing on administrative data, I provide a quantitative portrait of the schools and neighborhoods of children from different racial/ethnic groups in 2015, documenting stark inequalities in these contexts. I conclude with a discussion of why segregation matters, what can be done about it, and why something must be done.
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Change history, 20 november 2020.
The original version of this article unfortunately contained an error. The author would like to correct the error with this erratum.
I use “Hispanic” to be consistent with the wording of the data collection instruments.
For reference, in 2015–2016, the US public school student body was 26% Hispanic, 15% Black, 48% White, and 5% Asian; if there were no segregation, each group should attend a school with these proportions.
ACS has a lower sampling rate than the Decennial Census, so analyzing small geographic units like tracts requires five-year aggregations.
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IMAGES
COMMENTS
Unequal Opportunity: Race and Education. W.E.B. DuBois was right about the problem of the 21st century. The color line divides us still. In recent years, the most visible evidence of this in the ...
Americans with a college degree weather economic downturns more easily than those without. In June, unemployment among high school graduates without a college degree jumped to 12%, compared to 3.6% the previous year. Among those with a bachelor's degree and higher though, unemployment increased to 7% (compared to 2.5% last year).
"Unequal" is a multipart series highlighting the work of Harvard faculty, staff, students, alumni, and researchers on issues of race and inequality across the U.S. This part looks at how the pandemic called attention to issues surrounding the racial achievement gap in America. The pandemic has disrupted education nationwide, turning a spotlight on existing racial and economic disparities ...
There are many explanations for educational inequity. In my view, the most important ones are the following: Equity and equality are not the same thing. Equality means providing the same resources ...
As a scholar, he has studied how policies and the law affect learning, and how conditions are often vastly unequal. His book "Five Miles Away, A World Apart" (2010) is a case study of the disparity of opportunity in two Richmond, Va., schools, one grimly urban and the other richly suburban. Geography, he says, mirrors achievement levels.
(such as health, happiness, educational success, or material possessions) and the unequal distribution of opportunities (access to power and life chances that facilitate attainment of desirable outcomes). Second is the distinction between the unequal distribution of opportunities and outcomes among individuals and between groups.
Racial segregation in public education has been illegal for 65 years in the United States. Yet American public schools remain largely separate and unequal — with profound consequences for ...
The essential economic role of education implies that unequal education can be a driver of unequal outcomes between different groups in society. What is more, educational inequality is at the root of low social mobility across generations. If only the children of wealthy and successful parents have access to the best educational opportunities ...
behavior ( Lochner 2020), and greater civic participation (Lochner 2011).1. The essential economic role of education implies that unequal education can be. a driver of unequal outcomes between ...
The fifth entry in our Unequal series explores why educational inequity is at the heart of all inequity, and highlights the ideas and actions that can make education a pathway to success for all. ... Personal essay. Tauheedah Baker-Jones ... The ideas, research, and actions aimed at creating equitable opportunities for success and prosperity ...
Inequality is an unequal distribution of resources, opportunities, and privileges in a society. This unevenness can manifest in various forms, such as economic inequity (unbalanced wealth or income), social discrimination (such as race, gender, or ethnicity), and political unfairness (disproportional access to power and representation).
Educational policy must go hand in hand with practice developments. Education policy has a dominant focus on the development and education of children and young people. This paper specifically avoided narrowing the discussion solely to children since there are huge numbers of adult learners too.
Equality of Educational Opportunity. First published Wed May 31, 2017; substantive revision Fri Mar 17, 2023. It is widely accepted that educational opportunities for children ought to be equal. This thesis follows from two observations about education and children: first, that education significantly influences a person's life chances in ...
First, the demand for equal educational opportunities can lead to prematurely attributing unequal educational outcomes, which could have been avoided, to unequal talent and effort. Second, this demand creates the tendency to justify social inequalities by saying that, after all, measures were taken to realize equal educational opportunities.
America's Schools Are 'Profoundly Unequal,' Says U.S. Civil Rights Commission : NPR Ed More than 60 years after Brown v.Board of Education, the fight for equity in America's schools rages on.
What this study finds: Extensive research has conclusively demonstrated that children's social class is one of the most significant predictors—if not the single most significant predictor—of their educational success.Moreover, it is increasingly apparent that performance gaps by social class take root in the earliest years of children's lives and fail to narrow in the years that follow.
Decades after Brown v. Board supposedly ended segregated schooling, these boundaries show a country where education remains deeply divided and unequal. "You know it as soon as you look at the ...
Over the past 25 years, racial segregation in neighborhoods and schools has slightly declined in terms of sorting, though children remain racially isolated in their neighborhoods and schools. Income segregation between schools, school districts, and neighborhoods has increased among children. Recent educational policy and demographic changes ...
Unequal educational opportunities, thus understood, could theoretically be compatible with benefitting the less advantaged in society. When wealthy parents are permitted to buy better educational opportunities for their children (e.g. by paying for them to attend elite private schools) this could enhance the total stock of human capital in society.
There is a grain of truth in all of these hypotheses ‐ and a good deal of misinterpretation as well. The purpose of this essay is to "unpack" the realities of globalisation and internationalisation in higher education and to highlight some of the ways in which globalisation affects the university.
Draft Platform for Action. B. Unequal access to and inadequate educational opportunities. 71. Education is a basic [human] right and an essential tool for achieving the goals of equality, development and peace. Non-discriminatory education benefits both girls and boys, and thus ultimately contributes to more equal relationships between women ...
Volunteer Opportunities: - Junior Leaders Program (Must be 14 to 18 years old and in high school) - Program Animal Care (Must be 14 years old and younger) - Birds of Prey Program Steward (Must be 16 years old and up) - Environmental Education/Envrionmental Outreach. - Gardening. - Land Management/Invasive Plant Removal.
The programme prepares graduates for the challenges of the digitalisation of international relations. It includes courses on big data analysis, and provides students with skills in the area of social media analysis. The School of International Relations is a member of the Association of Professional Schools of International Affairs.