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Curriculum Development Planning in Environmental Education for Developing Environmental Citizenship among Primary School Pupils in Rivers State

Situating curriculum in context: using glatthorn's standards-based curriculum development model to contextualize food safety learning competencies, the promise of the new educational strategy for curriculum development (spices) model on the development of students’ clinical reasoning ability. a comparative cross-sectional study, pengembangan kurikulum pendidikan agama islam (pai) di madrasah.

This research is a research that contributes ideas in developing curriculum in Madrasah. This is because the progress of the times has penetrated all areas of life, including the field of education. Of course the progress of the times demands progress that affects all aspects in it, including the curriculum as a reference in the education process. So there is a need for curriculum development, especially in Madrasas which in fact prioritize religious education in it. This is of course related to the demands of the times for graduates from Madrasas to be able to compete and not be out of date. The method in this study uses qualitative research and the type of research is library research. The results of this study are the curriculum development process includes: Determining the Model in Development, analyzing Needs and Situations, Determining Objectives, Goals, Goals, Formulating Content in the Curriculum, Selecting Methods in Developing Curriculum, Evaluating Curriculum, Implementing Curriculum, Curriculum Changes Providing Feedback.

Curriculum Development in Geography Education

This paper aims to analyze the historical development of the geography education curriculum. Geography has been occupying an important place since its inception at the Faculty of Education, Tribhuvan University in Nepal. This paper is a review paper. Reviewed materials were collected from different sources, such as official records of the Faculty of Education (FoE), Curriculum Development Centers (CDC) of TU, and archive documents. The findings show that geography has taught as an optional subject at the Bachelor and Master levels in the Faculty of Education. The curriculum covers a broad spectrum of geographic fields, such as physical, human, regional, tools and techniques, and applied concepts, themes, and issues. They are tourism, environments, disaster, climate change, mountains, and so on at both levels. This paper concludes that the curriculum of geography education focuses on content rather than pedagogy. However, it is equally important and necessary to enhance the knowledge on pedagogical content for teachers, educators, educational planners, researchers, and freelancers who are engaged in geography education.

Christian Life-Planning Curriculum Development for Digital Natives

A preliminary study for structural curriculum development for teaching korean culture abroad - an analysis of current korean program management in europe -, new spatial imaginaries for international curriculum projects: creative diagrams, mapping experiments, and critical cartography.

This article explores the complex relational landscape of international partnerships where local and transnational education objectives are entangled. We present a methodological practice for experimenting with diagrams and maps. Our emphasis on spatial rendering of local/global relationality is intended to invite discussion about the postcolonial context of international education work and the geopolitics of transnational curriculum. We pursue a diagrammatic and archipelagic form of creative abstraction, which we present as a posthuman cartographic practice. To illustrate this practice, we focus on a specific international curriculum development project funded by the World Universities Network.

Islamic Leadership School Curriculum Development in Taruna Panatagama Putri Yogyakarta

This research focuses on the process of curriculum development at Islamic Leadership School (ILS) in Taruna Panatagama Yogyakarta. This study aims to determine the concept and implementation of ILS curriculum development and its implications for learning outcomes. The method used in this research is descriptive qualitative method. The subjects were the founder, the Principal, the Caregiver, the teachers, the students and the alumni of the ILS Taruna Panatagama School. The data were obtained through interviews, observation, and documentation. The data were analyzed by using Spradley model, namely data analysis and data collection processes carried out simultaneously, consisting of analysis of conceptual domain information, taxonomic analysis (exploring important domains and subdomains by referring to library materials to obtain in-depth understanding), componential analysis (contrasting elements in the domains obtained and the subsequent relevant categorization), and theme analysis. The results of the study indicate that the curriculum with a homeschooling model has been built based on the potential development of each student. The basic concepts and ideas are applied based on Islamic teachings with a focus on leadership competencies by building awareness of Islamic personality and developing leadership. The implications for student learning outcomes are the changes in attitudes and behavior of students and achievements.

Curriculum Theory: A Review Study

The aim of this literature review study was to examine the historical development of the concept of curriculum theory, its reflections on curriculum development studies, and teaching-learning processes and also to attract the attention of the researchers to the area of curriculum theory which was seen to be left aside for years. The research was designed by reviewing the literature, and different theoretical perspectives on curriculum development studies in the USA which historically dominated the field since the early 1900’s and Turkey were examined. In the first phase, the explanation of the concepts of curriculum, theory, curriculum theory, the chaotic structure, and discussions in the literature regarding the terminology of these concepts were given. It was concluded that in the literature the concept of curriculum theory has been used synonymously with the concepts of curriculum beliefs, educational value orientations, curriculum ideologies, and curriculum orientations. In addition, the classification of curriculum theories, curriculum development studies in which the reflections of curriculum theories could be seen, and the studies conducted in Turkey and abroad on this subject were included in the study. Taking the limited number of studies on curriculum theories and their lack of variety into account, future studies on curriculum theory are considered to feed the intellectual background of the field and attract the attention of the researches to theories of curriculum, which will fill the gap in the literature.

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Curriculum and the Role of Research

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• First Online: 01 January 2015
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• Gail Burrill 2 ,
• Glenda Lappan 2 &
• Funda Gonulates 2  

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The survey team collected information on the development and use of curriculum from 11 diverse countries around the world. The data show that a common set of mathematics learning goals are established in almost all countries. However, only a few countries report a substantial role for research in designing and monitoring the development of their curriculum. The data also suggest great variation among countries at the implementation level.

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• Teacher support

Introduction

This report is based on an analysis of responses to survey questions on curriculum standards and goals from 11 countries: Australia, Brazil, Egypt, England, China, Honduras, Indonesia, Japan, Namibia, Peru, and six states in the United States. Footnote 1 The paper is organized in five sections: standards/curricular goals; relation of standards to the status quo, the role of textbooks in enacting the curriculum, the role of technology in classrooms, and teacher support related to standards/curricular goals. Footnote 2 The intent of the report is to allow others to examine their standards/curriculum goals relative to those of other countries across the world.

Standards/Curricular Goals

Who is responsible for the development of standards/curricular goals.

In most countries the ministry of education establishes curricular standards. In the United States, however, control of education is a state’s right, and in many states, for example, Montana, state constitutions give control of education to local districts. The federal government influences education through funding initiatives, such as the No Child Left Behind Act in 2001. The 2010 Common Core State Standards (CCSS) initiative is not a federal program but has been adopted and is being implemented by 45 of the 50 states and the District of Columbia. China also does not have a mandated national curriculum. China Mainland, including Shanghai, has common standards; Hong Kong, Taiwan and Macau create their own standards/curriculum goals.

In many countries, standards/curricular goals are set by historical tradition or cultural norms. For example, Namibia used the Cambridge curriculum when they became independent in 1990 and only recently has begun to develop their its own standards. Brazil ‘s standards are attributed to the history of the discipline, the prescribed curricula, and the comparative analysis among national documents from different historical periods and national and international documents. Some countries base their standards and guidelines on those of countries with high achievement scores on recent international exams. For example, both England and the United States cite countries such those from the Pacific Rim and Finland as resources for their new standards. Peru noted that an analysis of documents from other countries in South American and from TIMSS, Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), and National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) contributed to the development of their Diseño Curricular Nacional (CND) (National Curricular Design) ( 2009 ).

Why Standards?

Over time, many countries have changed from local standards to national standards. For example, Brazil found that the lack of national standards contributed to unequal opportunity for education. For much the same reason, the documented difference in the rigor and quality of individual state standards, the state governors in the United States supported the development and adoption of the CCSS. The new US standards are intended to be substantially more focused and coherent.

Standards are viewed as political: i.e., Brazil suggests that mathematics curricular goals depend more on political timing, election campaigns and government administrations, where “the logic of an education agenda that transcends governments and politicians’ mandates, set as a goal for a democratic and developed society, is not the rule” (Response to ICME 12 Curriculum Survey 2011, p. 6). In the United States the two major political parties have different views on education, its funding and its goals. This has recently given rise to the creation of publicly funded schools governed by a group or organization with a legislative contract or charter from a state or jurisdiction that exempts the school from selected state or local regulations in keeping with its charter. Hong Kong also reported that writing standards seems to be more politically based than research based. Many of the changes in England’s National Curriculum (NC) are the result of criticism from the current government that the NC is over-prescriptive, includes non-essential material, and specifies teaching method rather than content. In Peru each new curricular proposal is viewed as an adjustment to the prior curriculum. In this process, radical changes do occur, such as changing the curriculum by capabilities (CND 2005 ) to the curriculum by competencies (CND 2008 ) in the secondary education level. These decisions are often the result of a policy change with each new government.

In most countries surveyed, a diverse team, including mathematics education researchers, ministry of education staff, curriculum supervisors, and representatives of boards of education are responsible for developing the standards/goals. In some countries (Japan, Australia) teachers are involved, but in others the design teams are primarily experts from universities, teaching universities or the ministry of education (Indonesia, Egypt). The design of the framework for the National Curriculum in England is carried out by a panel of four, not necessarily mathematics educators, charged to reflect the view of the broader mathematics education community including teachers.

What Is the Role of Research?

Research has different interpretations and meanings in relation to the development and implementation of standards or curricula guidelines. One common response in the surveys was to cite as research the resources used in preparing standards (for example, other countries’ standards). In addition, the degree to which research is used in compiling the standards often depends on the vision, perspectives and beliefs of the team responsible for the development.

The use of research related to student learning in developing standards/curricular goals is not common among the countries surveyed. A typical description of the process was given by Hong Kong, where the development team might do a literature review and refer to documents of other countries, but the process is not necessarily well structured and often depends on the expertise of the team members. England, however, noted that the first version of their National Curriculum (NC) was largely based on the Concepts in Secondary Mathematics and Science project, (Hart 1981 ) that sought to formulate hierarchies of understanding in 10 mathematical topics normally taught in British secondary schools based on the results of testing 10,000 children in 1976 and 1977. The NC was also based on the ILEA Checkpoints ( 1979 ) and the Graded Assessment in Mathematics ( 1988 – 1990 ) projects. The original research-based design of the NC had many unintended consequences. Although the attainment targets were intended to measure learning outcomes on particular tasks, the levels were used to define the order in which topics should be taught, rather than paying attention to the development of concepts over time. The processes of mathematics, originally called “Using and applying mathematics” were defined in a general way related to progressions and levels that made interpretation difficult. As a consequence, the NC was revised several times and as of summer 2012 was again in the process of revision.

After a 1996 survey showed that social segmentation in Brazil seemed to be an obstacle to access to a quality education, research led to the development of the National Curricular Parameters in Brazil ( 1997 ). The Board of National Standards for Education ( Badan Standar Nasional Pendidikan ) in Indonesia examined the national needs for education, the vision of the country, societal demands, challenges for the future, and used their findings in developing the curriculum (Ministry of National Education 2006 ).

What Is the Nature of Standards?

In Brazil, Indonesia, Namibia and Peru, the standards/curricular frameworks are general and provide overarching guidelines for the development of discipline specific content. In the United States, Australia, and Japan, the mathematical standards essentially stand alone, although supporting documents may illustrate how the maths standards fit into the larger national education philosophy and perspective. Some standards include process goals. For example, Australia includes standards for four proficiencies (understanding, fluency, problem solving and reasoning) based on those described in Adding It Up (Kilpatrick et al. 2001 ). The new Australian standards want students to see that mathematics is about creating connections, developing strategies, and effective communication, as well as following rules and procedures. The United States CCSS has mathematical practice standards specifying eight “habits of mind” students should have when doing mathematics. In Brazil ideas such as “learn to learn”, “promote independence”, “learn to solve problems” are being incorporated into new curricula. In Peru and Indonesia the emphasis is primarily on the processes of problem solving, reasoning and proof, and mathematical communication.

In some cases standards reinforce the role of education in responding to the needs of the country. For example, the Curriculum for Basic Education (1st–9th grade) in Honduras (Department of Education 2003 ) was developed under three axes: personal, national and cultural identity, and democracy and work. The four pillars of lifelong learning defined by Delors ( 1996 ) (personal fulfilment, active citizenship, social inclusion and employability/adaptability) were used to define the mathematical content and methodological guides with problem solving as the central umbrella. Namibia’s National Curriculum for a Basic Education outlines the aims of a basic education for the society of the future and specifies a few very general learning outcomes for each educational level (Namibia MoE 2008 ).

Standards span different sets of school grades or levels and differ in generality. Some countries have grade specific standards for what students should know throughout their primary and secondary schooling (i.e., US, Japan). Australia specifies a common curriculum for grades 1–10 and course options for students in upper secondary. Egypt and Honduras have curricular goals for students in grades 1–9 (age 14). At the high school level, Honduras focuses on post high school preparation with more than 53 career- focused schools for students.

The development of fractions in Australia by the Australian Curriculum and Assessment Reporting Authority (ACARA 2011), the Japanese Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT 2008 ), the Ministry of Education in Namibia (MoE 2005 , 2006 ), and the US (CCSS 2010 ) illustrates the difference in standards across countries In grade 1, the standards/goals in the US, Namibia and Australia introduce words such as half, quarter and whole; this happens in grade 2 in Japan. Both US and Japan treat fraction as a number on the number line beginning in grade 3, emphasize equal partitioning of a unit and consider a fraction as composed of unit fractions: 4/3 = 4 units of 1/3. Australia suggests relating fractions to a number line only for unit fractions in grade 3, while Namibia does not mention fractions in relation to the number line. Equivalent fractions are taught in grade 4 in US, Japan, and Australia and in grade 6 in Namibia. Addition and subtraction of fractions with like denominators occurs in grade 4 in Japan, with unlike denominators in grade 5 in the US and Japan, and grade 7 in Namibia and Australia. Australia and Namibia have fractions as parts of collections in grade 2 and again in grade 4 in Namibia, but fractions as subsets of a collection are not mentioned in the standards/goals in the US and Japan. Students are expected to multiply and divide fractions in grade 5 in the US (with the exception of division of a fraction by a fraction, which happens in grade 6), in grade 6 in Japan, and in grade 7 in Australia and Namibia.

The next section describes what is taught in classrooms and how this relates to the standards/curricular goals of the country.

Examining the Status Quo

How are standards/goals related to the implemented curriculum.

Standards play different roles in shaping curriculum. For example, as described above, Peru does not have National Standards, but the mathematics learning goals for students are set out in the Curriculum National Design. With this as a guide, each of the country’s regions develops a regional curriculum that considers the diversity of cultures and languages. Similarly, since 2005 Indonesia has National Standards for Education, which include standards for content in each subject area and curriculum structure. Based on these and competency standards, every school develops their own curriculum considering the vision of the school, local culture and students’ background. In many of the US states, for example Massachusetts, standards provide a framework with the details of the curriculum, including the materials used for teaching and learning established at the district and school level. Japanese schools base their curricula on the national Course of Study (CS), a “Teaching Guide,” resources and guidelines developed by local boards of education in the prefecture, and planning guides from textbook companies. Adaptions are sometimes made based on the situation of the school and its students. When the prefectural or the municipal boards of education develop their own model plans, such as the “nine year schooling system” (ShoChu-Ikkan-Kyoiku), the school in the prefecture or the municipality follows those plans and makes revisions to the CS accordingly.

In some instances, countries turn to other countries with more resources for support in implementing the standards. For example, the Japan International Cooperation Agency supported Honduras in developing curriculum and resources for teachers. Macau uses resources from China Mainland, Hong Kong and Canada.

What Drives the Implemented Curriculum?

Standards, textbooks, or high-stakes examinations seem to drive what happens in classrooms in the countries surveyed. While Hong Kong indicated that standards play that role, teachers in Brazil, Taiwan, Egypt, Honduras, and Japan rely on textbooks, and China mainland cited both textbooks and practice books.

In several countries high stakes examinations are significant in determining what teachers actually teach. In the United States, with the exception of Montana, the states surveyed indicated they followed the curriculum based on the state standards, but in reality most teachers teach only to what they know from experience will be tested (Au 2007 ). The implemented curriculum in England also seems to be shaped by what is assessed, which determines the nature of the tasks students meet in classrooms. The curriculum in Indonesia is determined both by textbooks and the national examination. Entrance examinations of leading universities impact the curriculum in Brazil and Macau (95 % of the students in Macau attend private schools to prepare for university).

How Do Countries Monitor Implementation of the Curriculum?

Countries use several strategies for monitoring and evaluating the enacted curriculum: large scale research studies conducted by the government or a private agency, small focused research studies on what is being taught and learned, student achievement on high stakes assessments, and approval of textbooks teachers use to deliver the curriculum. Relatively large-scale research studies on students’ achievement are carried out in Honduras under the auspices of the Inter-American Development Bank and USAID. The Ministry of Education in Brazil investigated the incorporation of the National Curricular Parameters (PCN) into textbooks and other materials supporting teachers’ work, but little research has been dedicated to any of the various stages in the process of curriculum development including the curriculum enacted in classrooms.

Japan administers national assessments on a regular basis in mathematics and Japanese for students in the sixth year of elementary school and the third year of lower secondary school. The results often reveal challenges in knowledge and skill utilization, which lead to revisions in educational policies and classroom lesson plans. These assessments are viewed as invaluable in monitoring and revising the curriculum.

In the United States, perhaps the most significant change in the last decade has been the increasing role of high stakes assessments measuring student achievement in elementary/secondary education. Every year each state assesses each student in grades 3–8 and assesses students once in grades 9–12 using a common state assessment, typically consisting of multiple-choice procedural questions. The results are used to evaluate teachers, administrators, and the curriculum. Little or no evidence exists correlating success on these tests with curriculum (or any other factor). This has not deterred federal and state levels policy makers from making use of the assessment results in these ways. The emphasis on high stakes assessment and accountability are seen in England as well, although it is not clear that the results have contributed to changes in the curriculum or standards.

How Are Changes Made to the Standards/Curricular Goals?

Change occurs in different ways. In the US, the most recent change was brought about by entities outside of the government and teachers. Japan bases changes in goals/standards on research examining student learning. Standards teams summarize, examine, and investigate the results of research studies on what has been achieved though the current Course of Study (CS) and the results of pilot trials of new goals/standards in designated “research schools” (Kenkyu-Kaihatsu-Gakko). They monitor emerging trends, societal needs and international assessments. For example, the most recent revisions to the CS in Japan for elementary and lower secondary schools were in March 2008 and for upper secondary and special needs education in March 2009. In this CS, the aim of mathematics education stresses the student’s abilities to express their thinking and utilize mathematics in daily social life. In the CS for lower secondary schools, a new curricular strand “Use of Data” was added to enrich the content of statistics in the compulsory education. International mathematics assessments have helped statistics became a requirement in upper secondary schools. Taiwan and Hong Kong use some research supported by the government to construct and modify the curriculum as well as to inform teacher professional development and resource materials.

The Role of Textbooks

Survey responses indicated commercial publishers, private organizations, and government related organizations were involved in textbook development and distribution but to different degrees. The use of supplementary materials or teacher created worksheets was common in many of the countries. Many countries mentioned national standards/curricular guidelines as tools used in textbook development.

What is the approval or vetting process for textbooks?

In most of the countries with the exception of England and some of the states in the United States, some formal approval is necessary before texts can be used. For example, in Japan, textbooks are edited for adherence to the national curriculum and must be examined and authorized by MEXT. However, each textbook company can design and develop a textbook series with a final draft submitted to MEXT for examination and subsequent revision. During the development process, professionals (such as university researchers and teachers) play a large role in textbook design and development.

Many countries (China, Indonesia, Australia) have multiple textbook options for each grade level. Textbook adoption procedures vary, with decisions made at the national level (Brazil), state level (North Carolina), district level (Japan for elementary and lower secondary), school level (Japan for upper secondary) or even at an individual level (Taiwan). For the most part, the content would be the same across textbook options for each grade level since standards were the main drivers of the textbook development. Textbooks differ in the extent to which the contents are ordered and compiled but often have a similar style. Teachers in England make less use of textbooks than many other countries, and there is no uniform adoption procedure (Askew et al. 2010 ). In addition, public examination bodies produce textbooks that contain exercises from compilations of past examination questions that are popular with British teachers who see them as preparation for high-stakes assessment.

What Is the Role of Research in the Development of Textbooks?

Most countries mentioned an indirect or no use of research in textbook development. In the United States and England textbooks that are developed through large projects typically involve some research. In the United States, some curriculum materials (such as CMP 2012 ) are research based and developed with government or other sources of funding. Designers study trialling in classrooms, identify issues that emerge, what is working and not working to inform the next iteration of materials. The cycle may have several iterations, depending on funding and on commercial sales. (If the materials market poorly, the development is quickly terminated.)

Textbooks authored by individual teachers or commercial publishers did not seem to be noticeably influenced by pilot studies, research or research related to learning. In organizing textbook content, Japan makes use of research on high stakes assessment (the National Assessment of Academic Ability and other assessments implemented by local governments), the content and sequence of the old textbooks, and information obtained from teachers on the usability of the textbook and on the students’ responses to the textbook problems during the lesson. In Brazil, some authors of mathematics textbooks use research, or rely on research results, to develop books.

Focused research projects on aspects of the curriculum, supplements to illustrate the standards, pilot studies of initiatives, action research and/or small seed projects are common in Hong Kong and Japan. In the United States, research studies on student learning typically focus on specific content areas or the development of a single concept, such as understanding cardinality (i.e., Clements 2012 ) and have little direct connection to the curriculum. Graduate students carry out many such projects in the United States and in other countries such as Brazil, England and Australia.

The Role of Technology in the Curriculum

What is the relationship between standards/curricular goals and technology.

From a broad perspective, interacting with technology is seen in most countries as a critical life skill. In Peru, for example, the aim is to develop students’ “skills and attitudes that will enable them to use and benefit from ICT … thus enhancing the autonomous learning throughout life” (MoE 2009 , p. 17). The National Curricular Parameters ( 1997 ) in Brazil cite the value of technology as important for preparing students for their work outside of school. Australia defines Information and Communication Technology (ICT) as one of seven basic capabilities, i.e., the “skills, behaviours and dispositions that, together with curriculum content in each learning area and the cross curriculum priorities, will assist students to live and work successfully in the twenty-first century” (ACARA 2012 , p. 10) Namibia has much the same statement in their National Curriculum for Basic Education emphasizing creating and learning to use software such as Word or Excel. Hong Kong’s Technology Learning Targets calls for technology to enhance learning and teaching; provide platforms for discussions; help students construct knowledge; and engage students in an active role in the learning process, understanding, visualizing and exploring math, experiencing the excitement and joy of learning maths.

Some countries such as Namibia and Peru do not outline how technology should be used in the mathematics curriculum. Others describe the use of technology in mathematics classrooms in very general terms. Indonesia, for example, calls for the use of technology to develop understanding of abstract ideas by simulation and animation. In mainland China, the Nine Year Compulsory Education Mathematics Curriculum Standards emphasized the use of technology to benefit student understanding of the nature of mathematics. In Macau the standards call for educators to consider the impact of computers and calculators on the content and approaches in mathematics teaching and learning. In Taiwan, technology should support understanding, facilitate instruction, and enhance connections to the real world. England’s curriculum documents are more specific, consistently encouraging the use of appropriate ICT tools to solve numerical and graphical problems, to represent and manipulate geometrical configurations and to present and analyse data.

The standards/curricular goals of some countries provide general goals for incorporating technology into the curriculum and then describe specific instances. For example, the United States Common Core State Standards (2010) for mathematical practices call for students to visualize the results of varying assumptions, exploring consequences, and comparing predictions; engage students in activities that deepen understanding of concepts; create opportunities for and learning—comparing and contrasting solutions and strategies, creating patterns, generating simulations of problem situations. These generalizations are followed by statements throughout, such as in grade 7, “Draw (freehand, with ruler and protractor, and with technology) geometric shapes with given conditions” (p. 50) or in algebra, “find the solutions approximately, e.g., using technology to graph the functions, make tables of values, or find successive approximations” (p. 66). The new Australian Mathematics Curriculum specifically calls for the use of calculators to check solutions beginning in grade 3 and, by year 10 includes general statements about the use of technology, “Digital technologies, such as spreadsheets, dynamic geometry software and computer algebra software, can engage students and promote understanding of key concepts (p. 11)”. The curriculum provides specific examples: i.e., students should “Solve linear simultaneous equations, using algebraic and graphical techniques including using digital technology (p. 61).”

Japan has explicit learning goals for the use of technology and its Course of Study provides a guide for teachers that describes how calculators and computers can be used, with specific grade level examples under three headings; (1) as tools for calculation, (2) as teaching materials, and (3) as information/communication networks.

How Is Technology Used in Classrooms?

Respondents cited general issues related to the use of ICT. In England, for example, inspection reports based on evidence from 192 schools between 2005 and 2007 criticized schools’ use of ICT, finding effective usage was decreasing and the potential of ICT to enhance the learning of mathematics rarely realized. In Brazil, the number of schools equipped with technological resources is increasing; however, programs using the technology are still restricted to pilot projects.

In Japan a 2010 survey on ICT facilities found that computers (98.7 %), digital cameras (98.1 %), and CD players (95.2 %) were used almost daily or at least two to three times a week (MEXT 2011 ). Yet, results from international studies such as TIMSS indicate little actual computer use in Japanese mathematics classrooms. At least one computer is typically available in classrooms in Egypt, Peru, China mainland and Macau but rarely used for mathematics instruction. Honduras has a one laptop per child program, but the lack of suitable mathematics related activities limits the use of laptops in classrooms. This was also identified as a problem in England. Brazil reported that a preliminary analysis of research conducted in the country suggests that technologies are used very little. Teachers are uncomfortable with laptops and have few resources for using them.

The availability of technological tools for students varied among countries and within countries. Some have class sets of calculators available; others expect students to provide their own (China Mainland, Macau, Hong Kong). Some schools have computer labs; some have class sets of laptops, while others use a single computer with overheard display (common in China Mainland). Many schools in England have a separate computer suite, where pupils learn to use ICT as a mathematical tool, for example using spreadsheets to generate number patterns or present statistical information but their use to enhance mathematics learning is limited.

Some use computers to provide practice procedures and skills (England, Macau, North Carolina). Some (China mainland, Taiwan, North Carolina) use technology as a way to differentiate instruction. North Caroline describes using interactive sites that allow the learner to manipulate data and objects and then provide immediate feedback; video, games, and other learning activities for struggling students, and providing advanced students with online activities that challenge and invite further learning; real world math practice using tools like Google Earth for measurement, stock market simulations, digital cameras for capturing real-life examples of geometric figures, Skype or other conferencing tools to interact with scientists and mathematicians. Formative and summative assessment was also indicated as a way of bringing technology into the classroom.

Interactive whiteboards are becoming increasingly common, although their role in learning mathematics is not well documented. They are heavily used in Great Britain (in about 75 % of schools) (Schachter 2010 ), and usage is growing in Japan from 16,403 in 2009 to 60,474 in 2011 (MEXT 2011 ) and the United States with 51 % of classrooms (Gray 2010 ). According to England an advantages of interactive white boards include high-quality, diagrams and relevant software to support learning through, for example, construction of graphs or visualization of transformations. A negative effect of interactive whiteboards seemed to be a reduction in pupils’ use of concrete manipulatives.

Teacher Support

What support is provided to teachers to help them know the curriculum.

The survey results from Brazil and Egypt indicated minimum support is provided to teachers to help them learn about the curriculum. Brazil noted the materials are distributed to teachers usually without any actions involving the teachers. The other countries surveyed provide some form of support for teachers although the amount and form as well as who was in charge of providing support differs. Some countries (i.e., England, China, Japan) have ministry driven efforts to help teachers learn about the curriculum. For example, in Japan, once a new course of study (CS) is determined, the Ministry of Education, using a “trainer of trainers” process, conducts “transmission lectures” (Dentatsu-Koshu) on the principles and content of the new CS to superintendents on the prefectural boards of education who in turn give lectures to the superintendents on the municipal boards of education. The local superintendents then give lectures to all schoolteachers within a period of three years. The Ministry makes information available to teachers by showing concrete teaching examples, especially for large changes from an old to a new course of study. A variety of research meetings and conferences as well as lectures and symposiums are offered to educate teachers on the new CS.

A similar trainer of trainers process organized by the Ministry is also used in Honduras and Peru, although in Peru, some question the effectiveness of the process, given the results of five evaluations available on the web page of the Ministry of Education. Since 2010 the Ministry of Education in Mainland China has invested considerable resources to help teachers (over 1.1 million teachers at the primary level) understand the basic ideas of the curriculum standards and main content of the curriculum. The work is organized and financed by the Ministry but carried out at the local level. In Hong Kong, the Ministry of Education organized a professional development series, “Understanding the Curriculum”, to explain the breadth and width of the curriculum. Exemplars, usually a product of collaborative research with schools, are used for illustration.

Other countries have a blend of ministry designed strategies and local initiatives. In Indonesia, the local (district and province) as well as central governments facilitate in-service training for teachers helping them to understand more about the curriculum. District school supervisors, advisors and/or experts from universities do the training and aim to improve the understanding of the Standards of Content, Process and Evaluation. Workshops and sessions on the standards are often organized and provided at the local level by university educators, school districts, curriculum consortia, and non-profit partners for all educators in a region of a state. Web based resources are provided in several countries (Honduras, China Mainland, Hong Kong, Japan). North Carolina provides webinars on the structure, organization, and content of the state standards, and Ohio provides online resources and disseminates curriculum models and other support documents to districts.

What Support Is Provided to Teachers to Help Them Enact the Curriculum?

In some countries support for instruction related to curriculum comes from the ministry of education (China Mainland, Hong King, England, Peru, some states in the United States) and in others it is provided through a combination of ministry of education and local initiatives or at the local level. Support primarily takes three forms: resources, professional development and mentoring.

Resources: Supplemental resources, materials created by outside research-based projects, and documents based on the state/national curriculum or standards are often designed and delivered through university programs. In some areas in Brazil, teachers are given written supporting material, videos, and learning resources, and technical pedagogical teams often help teachers in the implementation of the curriculum.

Professional Development: A variety of forms of professional development were also cited as ways to help teachers enact the curriculum. In Taiwan the curriculum development council provides lectures at the school level, instruction counselling groups and in-service workshops. Teacher training in Indonesia helps teachers develop teaching plans and provides strategies, methods, and approaches that have been adopted from the current research and theory. Honduras uses a “learn by doing” model for in-service, and many districts in the United States support mathematics “learning communities”. Some form of collaborative lesson planning is typical in several of the countries (Japan, Macau, some states in the United States). In many countries (i.e., Hong Kong, United States) universities offer a variety of programs for in-service teacher education; graduate programs are sites for teachers’ professional development. Publishers also organize and deliver professional development workshops (China Mainland, United States).

Japan has a structured system of support. Local boards of education provide training for beginning teachers and for those with five, 10 and 20 years of teaching experiences as well as a variety of professional, non-mandatory training courses to enhance teaching ability and skills; for example, the Tochigi prefectural board of education offers 50 courses a year. Recently, a new teacher training/licensing system has been employed. Ordinary and special licenses are valid for 10 years; teachers need to renew their licenses by attending training courses every 10 years, given by general universities and teacher-training universities. These training courses are required to offer information based on the most recent research.

Mentoring: A third form of support in some countries is individualized, such as the Strategic Program for Learning Achievements in Peru where, since 2010, classroom teachers working with children up through the first two years of Basic Education (grades 6–8) receive advice from a specialist teacher. In the United States, many local districts have mathematics coaches who work with teachers, particularly at the elementary level. Hong Kong has dedicated “research schools” that mentor other schools in the implementation of the curriculum. A slightly different strategy is used in Honduras where teachers travel to Japan to see how the curriculum is enacted in classrooms and to learn about mathematics education.

While some cite a research base for professional development, the connection to research is often very limited (Hong Kong, Massachusetts and North Carolina in the United States). England provided ministry organized teacher support designed with a research perspective and later studies investigated the success of the implementation. The National Strategies (DFE 2011 ) were, from 1998 until 2011, the main delivery vehicle for supporting teachers to understand and implement government teaching and learning priorities. The programme, originally called the National Numeracy Strategy (NNS), was aimed at primary education but was later expanded to include secondary schools with the National Mathematics Strategy (NMS). The National strategies conducted a massive professional development programme, running courses and providing publications, advice and professional development materials such as videos to schools. These also included guidance on course planning, teaching and learning, assessment, subject leadership, inclusion, intervention and mathematics specific content. Detailed assessment guidance, lesson plans, and intervention programs were all provided (DFE 2011 ). An annotated bibliography of research evidence claimed to underpin the National Strategies (Reynolds and Muijs 1999 ). However, the research evidence was described as ambivalent and relatively scarce (Brown et al. 2003 ).

Evaluations of the implementation of the NNS were carried out and indicated some success, but this was contested by many who asserted the gains on National Tests attributed to the programme may be attributed to a careful choice of statistical baseline and to teachers’ increasing tendency to orient their teaching towards the tests. When alternative tests were used, smaller gains were noted. Teaching seemed to have changed mainly in superficial ways, and some evidence suggested that in almost no cases were there ‘deep’ changes. (Brown et al. 2003 , p. 668). In 2008 an inspection service found weaknesses in basic teaching skills and had difficultly assessing which initiatives worked and which did not. The frequent introduction of new initiatives, materials and guidance led to overload and diminished the potential effectiveness of each individual initiative (Ofsted 2010 ). As of March 2012, the Coalition Government abolished the National Strategies programme, and future professional development is decentralized and in the hands of individual schools.

Concluding Remarks

The survey data shows us that a common set of mathematics learning goals are established in almost all countries with a very minor role for research in designing and monitoring the development of their curriculum. Standards, textbooks, or high-stakes examinations seem to drive what happens in classrooms. Countries vary greatly in the amount of support provided to teachers in learning about and implementing the curriculum specified in their standards/goals.

Survey Responders

Australia: Peter Sullivan (Monash University)

Brazil: This report is a result of the collaboration between the Group of Studies and Research on Mathematical Education and Education (USP) & Organization, Curriculum Development and Teacher Education (PUCSP)

Vinício de Macedo Santos (University of Sao Paulo),

Célia Maria Carolino Pires (Pontifícia Universidade Católica de São Paulo),

Elenilton Vieira Godoy (Pontifícia Universidade Católica de São Paulo and Centro Universitário Fundação Santo André),

João Acácio Busquini (Secretaria de Estado da Educação de São Paulo),

José Carlos Oliveira (Costa Centro Universitário Fundação Santo André).

China: China Mainland—Jiansheng Bao, Xuefen Gao, Likun Sun & Xiaoli Ju (East China Normal University, Shanghai)

Taiwan—Hsin-Mei E. Huang (Taipei Municipal University of Education)

Hong Kong—Polly Lao (Hong Kong Bureau)

Macau—Chunlian Jiang (University of Macau)

Egypt: Fayez Mina (Ain Shams University)

Honduras: Libni Berenice Castellón (Universidad Pedagógica Nacional Francisco Morazán.)

Indonesia: Edy Tri Baskoro (Board of National Standard for Education)

Japan: Keiko Hino (Utsunomiya University)

Namibia: Karen D’Emiljo (Otjiwarongo Secondary School)

Peru: Martha Rosa Villavicencio Ubillus (National University San Marcos); Olimpia Rosa Castro Mora (Ministry of Education)

United Kingdom, England: Malcolm Swan, Sheila Evans (University of Nottingham)

See end of report for list of response teams from each country.

Survey Team: Chair Glenda Lappan (USA), Jiansheng Bao (China), Karen D'Emiljo (Namibia), Keiko Hino (Japan), Vinício de Macedo Santos (Brazil), Malcolm Swan (England), IPC Liaison: Gail Burrill (USA).

Askew, M., Hodgen, J., Hossain, S., & Bretscher, N, (2010). Values and variables: Mathematics education in high-performing countries . London: Nuffield Foundation.

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Brown, M., Askew, M., Millett, A., & Rhodes, V. (2003). The key role of educational research in the development and evaluation of the National Numeracy Strategy. British Educational Research Journal, 29 (5): 655-667.

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Currículo National Básico (2003). Department of Education Honduras. www.se.gob.hn/index.php?a=Webpage&url=curriculo

Delors, J. (1996) Learning: The treasure within. Report to UNESCO of the International Commission on Education for the Twenty-first Century, UNESCO.

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Diseño Curricular Nacional. (National Curricular Design). (2009). Lima, Peru: Ministry of Education.

Graded assessment in mathematics . (1988–1990). Basingstoke Hants: Macmillan Education.

Gray, L., Thomas, N., & Lewis, L. (2010). Teachers’ use of educational technology in U.S. public schools: 2009 (NCES 2010-040). Washington DC: National Center for Education Statistics, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education.

Hart, K. (Ed.). (1981). Children’s understanding of mathematics 11-16 . London: John Murray.

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Kilpatrick, J., Swafford, J., & Findell, B. (Eds.). (2001). Adding it up: Helping children learn mathematics . National Research Council. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, Japan, (2008). Elementary school teaching guide for the Japanese course of study: Mathematics (English translation Japanese mathematics curricula in the course of study, March, 2008 by Asia-Pacific Mathematics and Science Education Collaborative at DePaul University, Chicago IL, USA)

Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, Japan, (2011). Results of the survey on the states of educational use of information technology in schools, 2011. (in Japanese).

Ministry of National Education (2006). Tentang standar kompetensi lulusan untuk satuan pendidikan dasar dan menengah (Graduate competency standards for basic and secondary educations), Republic of Indonesia.

Namibia Ministry of Education. (2006). Mathematics Syllabus Upper Primary Phase Grades 5 – 7. National Institute for Educational Development

Namibia Ministry of Education. Curriculum for the Lower Primary Phase Grades 1-4 (2005). National Institute for Educational Development

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Burrill, G., Lappan, G., Gonulates, F. (2015). Curriculum and the Role of Research . In: Cho, S. (eds) The Proceedings of the 12th International Congress on Mathematical Education. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-12688-3_17

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Curriculum development: a how to primer

Jill schneiderhan.

Department of Family Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA

Timothy C Guetterman

Margaret l dobson.

Curriculum development is a topic everyone in the field of medical education will encounter. Due to the breadth of ages and types of care provided in Family Medicine, family medicine faculty in particular need to be facile in developing effective curricula for medical students, residents, fellows and for faculty development. In the area of medical education, changing and evolving learning environments, as well as changing requirements necessitate new and innovative curricula to address these evolving needs. The process of developing a medical education curriculum can seem daunting but when broken down into smaller components can become very straightforward and easy to accomplish. This paper focuses on the curriculum development process using a six-step approach: performing a needs assessment, determining content, writing goals and objectives, selecting the educational strategies, implementing the curriculum and, finally, evaluating the curriculum. This process may serve as a template for Family Medicine educators, and all medical educators looking to design (or redesign) their own medical education curriculum.

Introduction

Developing curricula is an important topic at all levels of medical education, from teaching medical students and residents to developing ongoing professional education. Despite its importance, it is easy to slip into a pattern of ad hoc curriculum development with little attention to desired outcomes. To maximise the potential of any medical education initiatives, we present a systematic approach to developing and evaluating curricula. Therefore, the purpose of this article is to describe the curriculum development process over six steps: performing a needs assessment, determining content, writing goals and objectives, selecting the educational strategies, implementing the curriculum and finally, evaluating the curriculum.

The word curriculum originated in classical Latin where the original meaning was ‘running’ or ‘race course’. Over time, it transitioned to meaning ‘a course of study’ or more specifically, ‘a course offered by an educational institution’. 1 Curriculum in medical education can vary widely in size and scope, encompassing individual topics such as learning to take vital signs in the first year of medical school, to very large areas with longitudinal scope such as a curriculum on decreasing errors in hospitalised patients through improved transitions of care. For the purposes of this paper, we will refer to any planned educational experience as an example of a curriculum.

The exact nature of a curriculum should be seen as the ‘what’ of the educational experience, such as the description of the intended learning outcomes or the document used to describe these. The development of this description or document in a systematic and concrete way is the focus of this paper, which should in turn drive implementation.

There are several underlying assumptions in approaching curriculum development that are well articulated by David Kern. 2

First, educational programs have aims or goals, whether or not they are clearly articulated. Second, medical educators have a professional and ethical obligation to meet the needs of their learners, patients and society. Third, medical educators should be held accountable for the outcomes of their interventions. And fourth, a logical, systematic approach to curriculum development will help achieve these ends. (page 5).

The development of educational curriculum is by nature driven by the discipline itself. There have been profound changes to the field of medical education over the last several decades with a shift from simply delivering knowledge to the learner to teaching skills such as clinical reasoning among others. As the process has shifted so has the need for developing appropriate curricula to teach these new skills become more important. Within family medicine, in particular, there has also been a shift to thinking about preventative and population health which along with huge changes in practice environments have driven need for more diverse educational strategies.

Medical education curriculum development has largely drawn from general education curriculum development with refinement over time into a framework that is largely accepted and taught throughout the field of medical education. 2 We will use this framework, combined with our own experiences and published examples of curriculum development, to lay out a format that can be widely applied to whatever educational topic is attempting to be taught.

The framework outlined in this paper is a combination of previously articulated curriculum development approaches by Patricia Thomas and David Kern, 2 as well as the framework used in the University of Michigan Faculty Development Institute’s Workshop on Curriculum Development.

The six steps are:

• Performing a needs assessment and writing a rationale statement.
• Determining and prioritising content.
• Writing goals and objectives.
• Selecting teaching/educational strategies.
• Implementation of the curriculum.
• Evaluation and application of lessons learnt.

The prompts for the development of a curriculum can be multifactorial. They can be external, coming from outside the group, such as the requirements of accrediting bodies or less well-defined ‘movements’ in delivery of care models. Internal motivations may arise as well, for example, from review of learner’s performance evaluations or needs specific to the community being served by the learners.

The following is an example from the experience of one of the authors (JS) of this paper that was initially prompted by learner’s performance. During the review of residents’ performance at a small residency programme, it was noted that there was a slow rate of acquisition of communication skill milestones by a substantial number of learners, making it clear that the issue was less about the individual learners and more systemic in nature. On further reflection, it became clear there was not a specific educational strategy to teach this topic. This led to the formation of a working group to develop a curriculum to teaching communication skills. The group met several times and followed a specific curriculum development process. The process began by discussing if there was broad agreement that this curriculum needed to be developed and on what data that decision was being based on (step 1: performing a needs assessment and writing a rationale statement).

The next step was to determine what exactly was going to be addressed, and a process was undertaken to review both the milestones for communication skills given by the outside accrediting body for our programme and a review of the state of education around teaching communication skills in family medicine residency education (step 2: determining and prioritising content). Once we determined the content we wanted to cover, we expanded to what that would look like to the learner at the end of the curriculum, and then developed a set of goals and objectives for our curriculum (step 3: writing goals and objectives).

Next, we involved an educational specialist from our larger Graduate Medical Education Committee to help us in the selection of educational strategies. As we were a small programme, we did not have a specialist in communication skills; therefore, we were strategic in matching our strategies to the skills of our faculty teachers. From there, we organised the strategies into a formal curriculum with details of what would be taught, by whom and when (step 4: selecting teaching/educational strategies).

The next year, the curriculum was rolled out to the family medicine residents in the form of lectures and workshops, precepting strategies and feedback tools (step 5: implementation of the curriculum). Throughout the course of that year and into the next, we evaluated the individual components and also the milestones pertinent to our curriculum, and then returned to the overall plan and adjusted for improvement (step 6: evaluation and application of lessons learnt). Overall, the process was a success, the new curriculum was in place and over the next several years slow improvement in the attainment of milestones relevant to this curriculum was seen.

In the above example, the steps outlined were followed in a stepwise fashion, but that is not necessary to the success of a curriculum. In the case that a curriculum is already in place, evaluation may lead to revision, which in turn may lead to the development of a new needs assessment, but not necessarily new goals or objectives. It may become unclear why effort is being put into a certain area and a formal needs assessment becomes important to justify an already successful educational strategy. Each of these steps can be important in and of itself and may come into play at different times. The table 1 provides a summary of steps with examples.

Curriculum development steps

Step 1. Needs assessment/statement

The needs assessment helps us answer ‘Why’? In the case of curriculum development, the answer may be quite broad and should point to the distinction between the current teaching strategy surrounding a learning need and what should be changed about it. 2 At the start, it is wise to consider whose needs are the priority. This may start with a learner’s needs (either attitudinal and knowledge-based needs, readiness to learn or timing), but likely extends to the patients and communities for whom the learner will be caring. When justifying time or funding, an articulation of how this curriculum might meet regulatory or board requirements can be useful.

The mechanics of a needs assessment includes readily available information and the collection of new information. 2 The acquisition of new information can be structured (survey or medical knowledge assessment), semi-structured (series of discussions or a call to action based on sentinel event), research/data driven (data on learners’ performance or clinical quality data) or based on regulatory requirements. 3–5

A very basic example (see table 1 ), 2 experienced by one of the authors was the identification of a gap in knowledge leading to the development of a newly structured educational activity.

Once the needs assessment is finalised, and the needs have been articulated, a rationale statement should be agreed on. 3–5 This rationale statement is 1–3 lines that articulates the fundamental findings from the needs assessment to guide the development of the curriculum. The rationale statement can then be used to keep the curriculum on task. It is intended to be modified only if there is a serious oversight in the development. In this way, the needs assessment and rationale statement can truly render a solid foundation for the curriculum in development.

Step 2. Determining and prioritising content

This is the first step in beginning to articulate what is going to be included, a general description of the content, along with a prioritisation of that content. In the example of the communication skills curriculum referenced above, the content was determined both by working backwards from the milestone goals and also from reviewing what experts in the field have identified. In some cases, there will not be expert knowledge or milestones to work from, and in these cases, original research might be needed, such as surveys of experts in the field, or analysis of conversation around a difficult topic needing to be addressed. An example of this last strategy can be seen in a recent publication on addressing the topic of racism in medical education (see table 1 ). 2 6

Step 3. Writing goals and objectives

Although goals and objectives are often thought of as similar, there is a nuanced difference to them that should be considered. A goal is a general statement of the knowledge, skill or attitude to be attained by the learner and is often a description of the important content as determined in your earlier steps. In contrast, an objective is a specific measurable skill or attitude that the learner will be able to demonstrate at the end of the educational activity. While goals are helpful in defining the overall strategy, the objectives are necessary in order to measure if your curriculum is successful.

While writing goals is relatively simple, as they are general statements of knowledge, the writing of an objective is more challenging and will be discussed in more detail. Objectives need to be understood by both learners and instructors, and to that end, need to be as specific and measurable as possible.

This statement asks us to simply consider the basic elements of an objective: ‘Who will do how much of what by when? (page 51)’. 2 Perhaps, the most important component of this is the verb, or the ‘will do’ piece, which should be open to as few interpretations as possible. Good verbs to use may include ‘list’, ‘define’, ‘execute’ and ‘differentiate’, as opposed to verbs that should be avoided such as ‘know’, ‘understand’ or ‘appreciate’, which are vague and difficult to measure. 7

Table 2 below provides examples of how an important content area is translated into a goal and an objective and some examples of both poor and well-written objectives.

Examples of goals and objectives

Step 4. Selecting teaching/educational strategies

Selecting the teaching or educational strategies to deliver new curriculum helps predict its success. One early alignment to consider is the congruence between the topics (knowledge, affective or psychomotor) and teaching method. 2 Options for curriculum delivery are summarised in table 3 . When selecting a strategy, it is helpful to consider both the learner(s) and the teacher(s), as well as the material. If the relationship between teacher and learner is intended to be formative, or longitudinal, the strategy may favour the person teaching and likely incorporates some element of discussion. If the priority is garnering a basic level of skill/understanding of a stable topic and potentially assessing that knowledge, a web-based tool may be the right approach. When planning multiple sessions, it is helpful to consider overall structure to promote cohesiveness, but with variability between the sessions to meet the educational goals and objectives for that session. In Family Medicine, we are also especially attuned to consider the role of the team in implementation of new teaching, as team-based care is central to the practice of Family Medicine. This may push us to consider cross or interdisciplinary educational approaches. See tables 2 and 3 for examples.

Educational strategies

Step 5. Implementation

The implementation phase can be divided into several different steps starting with the identification of resources. Resources fall into four basic categories which include personnel, time, facilities and funding. 2 Personnel are the teaching faculty, administrative support, informational technology (if needed for computerised modules) and patients (if curriculum involves direct patient care). Time is often one of the most precious resources, given all that learners have to accomplish in the short time they are in school or residency, and includes didactic time as well as the time of all the personnel listed above. Facilities are the spaces such as classrooms or clinic sites where the learning will take place. Funding is all the direct financial costs or faculty compensation, along with any other hidden costs. Utilising existing resources (educational materials already developed, time already put aside in the curriculum, rooms already dedicated to teaching) can lower costs and increase the likelihood of success.

The next step is obtaining support internally from stakeholders to the curriculum, and at times externally, when funding or support for other resources is needed. Stakeholders are those most directly impacted by the curriculum and often include learners, the faculty doing the teaching and any administrative personnel needed. Having their support and enthusiasm is crucial to the success of any curriculum. External support becomes necessary when resources beyond what is available to the programme or school are needed, either financially or in terms of facilities. A great example of finding resources and support is seen in Noriea et al , where a curriculum to teach health disparities was developed which used nationally developed resources and partnered with local clinics for the offering of clinical experiences. 8

The next step is the design of the management plan, which details the actual step-by-step process of how the curriculum will be delivered. This should include the who, what, where and how for each component or teaching strategy. This is where anticipating any barriers that might arise during the role out of the curriculum may be anticipated in advance, with a plan to mitigate the barriers. A great example of this level of detailed plan is also seen in Noriea et al ’s study where they include a table that details out each didactic component of their curriculum, along with the assignments to the students and the teaching strategies being employed. 8

The last step in implementation is the actual role out. This is where all the work you have put in so far will pay off. It is important to pilot sections of the curriculum to enthusiastic stakeholders initially to both gain more support and also to identify and rectify any barriers to implementation so that the odds of success are increased. This pilot can be followed by a phasing-in, where new portions are added until the full curriculum is implemented.

Step 6. Evaluation

Evaluation is a process of determining the merit, value or worth of a programme. 9 Evaluation is often considered the final phase of curriculum development, but it should span the entire process and is often cyclical and iterative. Two major types of educational evaluation included here are formative and summative. 10 Formative evaluation is conducted early on, or at key points, during a programme in order to inform changes and identify opportunities for improvement. Summative evaluation, however, is an evaluation of outcomes that occurs in a more final phase of implementation. Summative evaluations are useful to make a judgement about whether a curriculum was successful, and for whom, in order to report back to stakeholders. A preparatory step is to consider early on whether to conduct either formative or summative evaluation, or both. Drawing from utilization-focused evaluation 11 and the steps in any research process, 10 the major steps of an evaluation are: (1) develop a clear plan to use evaluation results; (2) determine how to measure objectives; (3) collect data; (4) analyse data and (5) use evaluation results by applying lessons learnt.

Although it may seem counterintuitive, the first step of an evaluation is to consider who will use the evaluation results and how. Simply, an evaluation that is never used will not be worth the effort. A utilization plan should include and describe the dissemination plan (eg, a written report, presentations, discussion sections) and the specific audience for each. In addition, the utilization plan should detail what types of actions may be anticipated based on the results. For example, could the report lead to changing, ending or expanding the programme? The actual utilization occurs after the evaluation, but having a clear plan ahead of time can help to ensure the evaluation will actually influence the curriculum, with the goal of improving the learning itself, the experience of the learners and teachers and ultimately, patients and community members who will benefit from more skilled providers.

The next step is to determine how to measure learning objectives. This process is often called assessment and consists of operationalising objectives and determining how to collect data. Consider the learning objective: ‘The learner will be able to explain the difference in the pathophysiology of acute versus chronic pain’. Considerations include how to assess this objective, such as through tests, or other learner output. Of course, it must be more specific, such as whether the test is written or uses another form, the timing of the assessment, whether it will be repeated and what is considered proficiency. A norm-based assessment might compare student performance to other students to determine relative differences. A criterion-based assessment would have a particular cut-point that determines acceptable performance.

With planning efforts completed, the next steps are to collect and analyze data. Data collection might involve tests, interviews with students or instructors, performance assessments or other methods. 4 10 12 When using quantitative data, analysis occurs after all data have been collected. Analyzing pre-post differences can be particularly helpful in assessing whether learners may have changed. When using qualitative data, analysis begins as data are being collected and tends to be more iterative, with analysis informing subsequent data collection. 13

The final step is to use the evaluation results and apply lessons learnt to the curriculum. Guided by the utilization plan, this step consists of disseminating information to relevant stakeholders, and making use of the results to improve learning outcomes or the learning experience. This feedback and use of evaluation results is critical for continuing improvement of medical or professional education. Thus, the evaluation process often repeats as educators apply lessons learnt and then evaluate and iterate the improved curriculum.

Conclusions

Following a systematic approach to develop and evaluate curricula provides a structure to frame teaching and learning and in doing so makes this process accessible to all Family Medicine educators regardless of previous experience. The process may be applied to develop an entirely new curriculum or to modify an existing one. Curriculum development begins with conducting a needs assessment and developing a written rationale for the curriculum followed by determining and prioritising what content will be included in the curriculum. The third step is to clearly articulate the goals and write measurable objectives. Remaining goal oriented helps educators refrain from adding superfluous material. The fourth step is focused on how the curriculum will be delivered by selecting educational strategies. In the fifth step, educators determine what resources are needed on a practical level to implement the curriculum followed by the actual implementation. Finally, educators evaluate the curriculum and use those results to make changes.

The process we have presented encourages Family Medicine educators to systematically move through each step of curriculum development rather than take an ad hoc approach. By doing so, the educator becomes an expert in both their clinical subject and how best to educate learners in the topic. A structured approach helps ensure the work already being done can be shared widely through publication and presentation, if desired. Through the sharing of the curriculum development process, evaluation results or educational innovations with the broader scholarly community, Family Medicine educators and medical educators generally learn from one another’s experiences and the entire field is enriched.

Acknowledgments

We wish to thank Rania Ajilat and Lilly Pritula for their editorial assistance in preparing this manuscript.

Contributors: All authors contributed to the conceptualisation, writing and review of this manuscript.

Competing interests: None declared.

Patient consent for publication: Not required.

Provenance and peer review: Not commissioned; internally peer reviewed.

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This article describes the design and development of a set of interventions for the training and support of adjunct instructors in a rapidly growing online graduate program at a large, Midwestern research university. These interventions were designed to improve teaching preparation and assistance provided to our adjuncts. During this effort, the online program administrator collaborated with the staff from a higher education partner (Wiley), full-time faculty, and experienced adjuncts to determine what interventions were necessary. The stakeholders were also involved to varying degrees in the design, development, and implementation of the interventions. The interventions include: modifications to the general instructor orientation; check-ins for newly hired adjuncts; creation of course expectation guides; formalization of course orientation; opportunities for adjuncts to collaborate; a mentorship program for inexperienced adjuncts; monitoring and formative feedback for individual ad...

Andrew M. Boggs

Student evaluation of courses and teaching is a contentious issue in higher education. Recently, Ivory Tower Blues: A University System in Crisis (Côté & Allahar, 2007) went as far as to assert that professorial fear of student evaluations is a major contributing factor to rampant grade inflation across North America. Controversy centers on the (perceived) validity of student course/teaching evaluations: are students capable of providing accurate assessments of teaching ability and course content? The answer to this question has practical implications. For faculty, student evaluations can influence promotion and tenure decisions. For students, evaluations may influence course selection and are often the only opportunity students have to provide feedback on quality of instruction. This session will look at research on student course/teaching evaluation validity, including information about instrument development, interpretation and factors often understood to influence evaluation results. The presentation will follow a parliamentary debate format, with the presenters advocating for two sides of the question: are student evaluations valid measures of teaching effectiveness? Participants will be given the opportunity to offer their own thoughts and experiences (speeches from the floor) and to vote for the argument they feel is more compelling (division of the house).

د.عبدالرحمن الجعيد

Expanding & Developing Curriculum in African American Studies & Anthropology at Malcolm X College

Edward C. Davis IV

This 168-page research paper was written for tenure at City Colleges of Chicago. From 2011-2013, I conducted original research and took five doctoral level courses in pedagogy, in training and development, and in literacy education. The research paper reflects the findings of my project, as it relates to Literature Circles, curriculum development, as well as the history of African American Studies and Anthropology at Malcolm X College, City Colleges of Chicago. I was awarded tenure in February 2014 based on the approval of my original research, teaching, curriculum development, service to the college, and service to the community.

This is the application and supporting materials compiled for my Advanced Graduate Teacher Certificate from Purdue's Center for Instructional Excellence.

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UK faculty roll out local food systems curriculum to inspire Kentucky youth

LEXINGTON, Ky. (Sept. 6, 2024) —  A collaborative project between the University of Kentucky Martin-Gatton College of Agriculture, Food and Environment (CAFE) , Black Soil KY and Need More Acres Farm has resulted in an agriculture and food systems curriculum for young Kentuckians.

The Food, Farming and Community curriculum is an interactive, story-based learning tool that explores local food systems and agriculture career paths for Kentucky youth. Its goal is to encourage students to participate in agriculture and promote food literacy.

Nicole Breazeale, associate professor in the Department of Community and Leadership Development at Martin-Gatton CAFE, serves as the principal investigator for the project. Breazeale believes that the program will ignite youth’s passions related to the value of inclusive and sustainable local food systems.

“All youth deserve access to fresh, healthy, local food, and all youth deserve the opportunity to explore careers in growing and producing food,” Breazeale said. “I think this curriculum fills a gap and helps youth around the state get excited about an inclusive local food system, which is critical to the future of our state, our health, our economies and our connection to each other.”

The curriculum centers around three videos showcasing stories of farmers and local food systems practitioners around the state, including teenagers involved in beekeeping, hydroponics and community supported agriculture.

Former UK football player and retired NFL player Avery Williamson, who grew up on a farm and is returning to agriculture, introduces the video series. Ashley Smith of Black Soil KY  and Michelle Howell of Need More Acres serve as co-hosts.

"This project has been transformative for land-based storytelling in Kentucky. Our featured guests are at the top of their industry but are oftentimes overlooked and undersought,” Smith said. “The interviews weave together education, empowerment and innovation in reaching a critical audience to the future of agriculture —  the youth.”

Ten interactive lessons have been developed around the video series, which culminate in a social action project.

Kimberly Haire, a middle school agriculture educator in Bullitt County, is one of seven agriculture educators who piloted this curriculum during the 2023-24 school year. As someone in the midst of introducing more fresh foods into their diet and reducing their intake of processed foods, she knew her students could learn a lot in this space because she was learning alongside them.

“A lot of students, and adults, don’t know where their food comes from,” Haire said. “One of the things the curriculum did was break down global versus local foods, and I could see kids’ eyes opening. They were so engaged with the content because they know this affects them.”

For their social action project, Haire’s students worked to address the problem of food insecurity in their community. Since many low-income families lack access to fresh and healthy local produce and minimally processed food, they decided to make local food boxes. They purchased a wide variety of products from local farmers, including lettuce, strawberries, carrots, local tomato sauce and biscuit mix, local meat and other meal ingredients. They put those foods into boxes with recipe notes and cooking implements from UK Cooperative Extension Service  and distributed them through their school’s Family Resource Center.

“The most amazing part of the social action project was watching our community come together to support us,” Haire said. “Need More Acres Farm, Kentucky Farm Bureau and our local extension office are just a few of the groups that donated to help my students. It showed them this project is much bigger than just the classroom.”

Jocelyn Kemp is a 4-H agent in Hardin County. Unlike in the traditional agriculture classroom, 4-H agents have less time with youth during in-school programming due to class times and limited classroom visits. Because of this, 4-H agents went through and chose which curriculum lessons would be most valuable to 4-H students.

“What makes 4-H unique is that while it’s statewide, it’s also individualized to your community,” Kemp said. “Our needs in Hardin County are going to look different from needs in other counties.”

Kemp was invited into a local middle school to teach a handful of lessons over a few months. Although it was not an agriculture class, the students were interested in food and excited to learn about it.

With the interactive, hands-on lessons and relatable content, Kemp noted how well the students retained the information from one month to the next. This encouraged her to bring in different food samples, teaching lessons about how those foods are made and how many places food travels before it’s put on a plate.

“The first food lesson was called ‘the path of popcorn,’” Kemp said. “I helped them track the popcorn all the way from when it’s corn in the field to in their hands. It helped them understand, ‘this is convenient for me to go and buy this, but what’s the process behind it?’ and I could see their wheels turning.”

Kemp said introducing her students to the people — farmers, distributors, drivers, packagers and more — behind just one snack that they eat helped them understand the importance of each step taken between farm and table.

“It doesn’t matter where you grow up or how you grow up. If you’re passionate about agriculture, there are unlimited possibilities for how you can act on this knowledge,” Kemp said.

Michelle Howell of Need More Acres Farm agrees with Kemp’s sentiments.

“I was raised by a single mom with limited access to fresh foods. Surprisingly, I was placed in an introductory agriculture class when I was in eighth grade and became fascinated by the power available to humans when they are actively engaged in the food system,” Howell said. “My biggest hope is that we are inspiring students to consider farming as their future career.”

Stacy Vincent, director of undergraduate studies for Agriculture Education (AgEd) at Martin-Gatton CAFE, worked with Breazeale to bring this program to life.

“For students to take ownership in a curriculum so that they are motivated to take social action to help their community is the highest level of curriculum engagement and impact,” Vincent said. “To know that agriculture has an influence in their social action is the icing on the cake.”

To learn more about the Food, Farming and Community curriculum, visit https://cld.ca.uky.edu/food-farming-and-community .

This material is based upon work that is supported by the National Institute of Food and Agriculture, U.S. Department of Agriculture, under award number 2020-38640-31521 through the Southern Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education program under subaward number 00002624. USDA is an equal-opportunity employer and service provider. Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this publication are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the view of the U.S. Department of Agriculture.

As the state’s flagship, land-grant institution, the University of Kentucky exists to advance the Commonwealth. We do that by preparing the next generation of leaders — placing students at the heart of everything we do — and transforming the lives of Kentuckians through education, research and creative work, service and health care. We pride ourselves on being a catalyst for breakthroughs and a force for healing, a place where ingenuity unfolds. It's all made possible by our people — visionaries, disruptors and pioneers — who make up 200 academic programs, a $476.5 million research and development enterprise and a world-class medical center, all on one campus.   

In 2022, UK was ranked by Forbes as one of the “Best Employers for New Grads” and named a “Diversity Champion” by INSIGHT into Diversity, a testament to our commitment to advance Kentucky and create a community of belonging for everyone. While our mission looks different in many ways than it did in 1865, the vision of service to our Commonwealth and the world remains the same. We are the University for Kentucky.   

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UC Davis Awarded $3M Grant to Develop Industrial Biotechnology Training Program

By Albert Liu

The National Science Foundation is awarding the University of California, Davis, $3 million to create a new research traineeship program focusing on industrial biotechnology.  The five-year grant will fund the development of the Bioindustrial Engineering for a Sustainable Tomorrow (BEST) program and create a curriculum for graduate students to acquire new technical and professional skills, preparing them for the rapidly expanding U.S. biotechnology market.

Facing a growing population and a changing climate, humanity will need to create innovative solutions and train highly skilled individuals to enact them.  In response to these challenges, President Joe Biden issued an Executive Order in the fall of 2022 directing the advancement of biotechnology and biomanufacturing.  By harnessing the principles of biology to manufacture food, pharmaceuticals, chemicals, and more, the activities outlined in this Executive Order aim to improve the American economy, environment and quality of life.  To this end, the National Science Foundation (NSF) has selected the UC Davis BEST program for funding as part of the NSF Research Traineeship Program to address these directives and train a future biotechnology workforce.

The UC Davis Biotechnology Program is working closely with principal investigator Juliana de Moura-Bell to spearhead the BEST program. The leadership team includes Denneal Jamison-McClung , director of the Biotechnology Program, David Block , director of the Integrative Center for Alternative Meat and Protein, Anna Denicol , Somen Nandi and several other UC Davis faculty members with a range of research expertise, including industrial bioengineering and precision fermentation, food science, plant science and related fields. On forming this campus-wide collaboration, De Moura Bell said, “Tackling complex problems like this will require a wide range of expertise that you can only get by bringing people from different research areas together.”

The BEST program will start at the graduate student level and continue through entry into the workforce, with the goal of creating a community of industrial biotechnology practitioners.  Master’s and doctoral students will select from one of three focus areas: Cultivated Meat, Alternative Proteins for Human and Animal Nutrition, and Natural or Recombinant Plant/Algal Proteins and Small Molecules for Industrial Applications. Trainees will acquire new skills in their focus area through guided coursework and workshops, in addition to participating in experiential opportunities such as internships and outreach to prepare them for a future career.

Graduate student researcher Madison Stewart in Professor Lucas Smith’s lab.

UC Davis has a historical commitment to enhancing graduate learning in biotechnology, with the Biotechnology Program serving as the home to several successful interdisciplinary training programs since the 1990s. The BEST team will build on this foundational expertise and continue longstanding work to broaden participation in STEM fields by engaging students from underrepresented and underserved communities. “Our goal is to develop a community of diverse, technically excellent graduate trainees who understand translational research and can communicate their science to non-specialist audiences,” said Jamison-McClung.

Along with technical expertise in bio-industrial engineering, the BEST leadership team has expertise in building inclusive research and training teams – de Moura-Bell has been recognized as a Center for the Advancement of Multicultural Perspectives on Science (CAMPOS) faculty scholar and Jamison-McClung serves as a CAMPOS affiliate, highlighting the investment by BEST leadership in creating an inclusive and diverse environment to help students to succeed.

At the institutional level, UC Davis serves as a governing member of BioMADE , a national institute focused on enabling American biomanufacturing. The BEST program will share BioMADE’s commitment to their 4S Social Dimensions: Safety, Security, Sustainability, and Social Responsibility.  BEST trainees’ required coursework will include modules on bioethics and professionalism, science communication, team science, and project management, ensuring that technical advances serve the interests of society. Additionally, UC Davis is home to the Cultivated Meat Consortium and the Integrative Center for Alternative Meat and Protein (iCAMP) , which are conducting complementary activities to the planned BEST curriculum in similar research spaces.  With increasing investment in biotechnology in the greater Yolo, Solano, and Sacramento County areas, UC Davis will be uniquely poised to train graduate students to lead and staff a rapidly growing industry in our region.

As the BEST program prepares for launch, de Moura-Bell shared her vision for their future direction: “The ultimate goal is to become part of UC Davis, to continue to offer holistic training, and to benefit many more people to come.”

Feature image caption:  Graduate students researchers Cody Yothers and Lin Cao conducting research at the lab.

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A multidisciplinary learning model using agv and amr for industry 4.0/5.0 laboratory courses: a study.

1. Introduction

2. literature review, 3. methodology.

• Former experience during the education of different robot systems
• Steadily changing requirements from the industrial world
• Getting feedback from graduated students
• Intelligent Material Handling Machines and Systems: Semester 1
• Mechatronics in Logistics: Semester 2
• Preparing for the subject in Semester 1
• Gathering experience from the subject in Semester 1
• Preparing for the subject in Semester 2
• Gathering experience from the subject in Semester 2
• Improving feedback routes
• Creating a learning model for the new semester 2024/25
• BSc degree: Logistics Engineering or other specialization
• Work experience, if it exists
• Language skills, especially the professional vocabulary
• Intelligent material handling machines and systems: The curriculum of the Hungarian version of this subject was available; however, the Hungarian MSc students come from the same university, from Logistics Engineering BSc; therefore, a lot of information can be skipped. As mentioned above, international students come from different backgrounds; therefore, a major modification was made to the curriculum.
• Mechatronics in logistics—Semester 2: This is a completely new subject, with only a background from the first author’s mechatronic engineering BSc and MSc degrees. Therefore, the laboratory exercises were completely rethought and created.
• Intelligent material handling machines and systems: The laboratory exercises focus on machines, especially the available ones, such as AGV, AMR, different types of conveyors, industrial robots, and automated loading machines.
• Mechatronics in logistics—Semester 2: The laboratory has many elements to show, like different types of sensors, actuators, pneumatic systems, PLC, and HMI.

3.1. Thematic of Proposed Subjects within the Learning Model

• Introduction to intelligent material handling machines
• Robotization
• Theory of programming Mitsubishi robot
• Laboratory show, practice of programming of Mitsubishi robot
• Introduction of mobile robots—AGV
• AGV vs. AMR
• Automated cranes, automated conveyors
• Presentation of the concept of mechatronics: History of mechatronics
• Detailing the disciplines of mechatronics
• Overview of sensors: Examining sensors in the laboratory
• Overview of actuators
• Overview of electric motors: Examining actuators in the laboratory
• Overview of pneumatic systems: Assembly of a simple pneumatic circuit in the laboratory
• Overview of hydraulic systems: Overview of mobile machines’ hydraulic systems
• Presentation of the base of PLC systems: Overview of PLC programming languages
• Describing a simple automated process 1.: Creating a PLC program for a simple automated process 1.
• PLC programming in the laboratory—first program; PLC programming in the laboratory—simple automated process 1.
• HMI programming in the laboratory: Practical test—creating PLC program for simple automated process 2.
• Example for using mechatronics in logistics 1.: Example for using mechatronics in logistics 2.
• Design and characteristics of robotic workplaces 1: Design and characteristics of robotic workplaces 2.

3.2. AGV Generally

• Forklift vehicle or truck (see Figure 1 a)
• Transport vehicle or truck (see Figure 1 b)
• Tow vehicle or truck (see Figure 1 c)

3.3. AGV in the Logistics 4.0 Laboratory of the University of Miskolc

• During lessons, the difference in using the virtual track from the physical track is explained
• During lessons, the functions of the navigation by LIDAR sensor are explained
• On the top of AGV, a six-degree-of-freedom industrial robot was mounted; it is part of the robotization part of the curriculum
• Conveyor belts serve as physical connectivity to the conveyor system
• Drive: 30V DC drive motors, gear ratio 1:25 (see Figure 6 ), it is part of the other subjects, such as the actuator
• Spherical wheel
• Safety sensors are part of the other subjects of sensors
• PLC & PC are part of the other subjects on PLC (see Figure 7 )

3.4. AMR in the Logistics 4.0 Laboratory of the University of Miskolc

• The Robotino works as an AP (Access Point); in this case, other devices can connect to Robotino’s internal AP.
• The Robotino works as a client; in this case, the Robotino should connect to an external AP like a Wi-Fi router
• Live camera
• Opening or closing gripper
• Function block the Control panel—onboard control possibility
• Function block Joystick—the value of rotation of the joystick hand is divided by five for more accurate control
• Function block Omnidrive calculates the necessary RPM for the three motors

3.5. Communication between AGV and AMR

3.6. the improved learning model using agv and amr, 3.7. further possible scenarios using agv and amr.

• Students come from abroad only for one semester, typically in the Erasmus program, and they can choose different subjects. In this case, they have only one semester to learn the robotic system, and they usually have different academic backgrounds, for example, Process Engineering or Mechanical Engineering.
• The subjects used in Logistics Engineering MSc and written in Section 3.6 are mandatory. However, in other MSc courses, like Information Sciences MSc or Mechatronics Engineering MSc, they can be indicated as optional subjects. In this case, since the students have deeper knowledge, the structure can be modified. For instance, the Information Science MSc students have higher programming knowledge, while Mechatronics Engineering MSc students have a deeper background in sensors and motors.

3.8. Personnel Configuration, Level of Difficulty and Difficulties during Teaching

• Difficulties during teaching can be listed as follows:
• The programming background of students is not strong; therefore, teaching programming is not only describing a programming language but also contains the logical part. It can be stated that without understanding the logic of programming, the students cannot program.
• Sensors and motors are electronic elements, and the logistics engineering students also do not have a strong background. Therefore, only the basics can be taught since there is no time for teaching and understanding deeper electronics knowledge.

5. Discussion

6. conclusions, author contributions, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, acknowledgments, conflicts of interest.

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Cservenák, Á.; Husár, J. A Multidisciplinary Learning Model Using AGV and AMR for Industry 4.0/5.0 Laboratory Courses: A Study. Appl. Sci. 2024 , 14 , 7965. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14177965

Cservenák Á, Husár J. A Multidisciplinary Learning Model Using AGV and AMR for Industry 4.0/5.0 Laboratory Courses: A Study. Applied Sciences . 2024; 14(17):7965. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14177965

Cservenák, Ákos, and Jozef Husár. 2024. "A Multidisciplinary Learning Model Using AGV and AMR for Industry 4.0/5.0 Laboratory Courses: A Study" Applied Sciences 14, no. 17: 7965. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14177965

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Want to fight gender inequality? A review of data from 118 countries shows that development aid works

Professor of Economics, University of Minnesota Duluth

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Bedassa Tadesse does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

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Gender inequality isn’t just unfair — it’s also a drag on the world economy. Giving women the same economic opportunities as men would add about US$12 trillion to global gross domestic product by 2025, one analysis found. That’s an 11% boost.

The link between women’s empowerment and economic growth is well established. When women are economically empowered, they invest more in their families, creating a cycle of positive outcomes that spans generations . Women’s participation in the workforce leads to greater productivity and brings diverse perspectives that enhance decision-making and drive innovation .

Recognizing these benefits, governments and nongovernmental organizations have increasingly directed aid — funds provided to developing countries to foster economic growth — toward promoting women’s empowerment.

As an economist who studies development , I wanted to know: Does all that money really make a difference? So, in a recent study , my colleagues and I analyzed the impact of gender-related aid on gender inequality using data from 118 countries over a 13-year period, from 2009 to 2022.

What we found was uplifting: Gender-related aid reduced inequality in most countries we studied.

We looked at two types of gender-related aid. The first is funding for projects that tie gender into larger economic goals. Development experts call this “ significant gender-related aid .” There’s also aid funding that narrowly and explicitly targets gender equality. Experts call this “principal gender-related aid.”

We found that the first approach consistently and significantly reduced gender inequality in 115 out of 118 countries we studied. The latter approach had statistically significant effects in 85 countries. It also appeared to be much more effective when paired with the first approach.

Our findings strongly suggest that integrating gender-related aid into broader development efforts is crucial for promoting gender equality. Gender and development are intricately intertwined, a fact often overlooked. Recognizing this connection is crucial for achieving sustainable and inclusive growth.

Women’s empowerment success stories

That might all sound pretty abstract, but our research shows that the world has made progress in real people’s lives over the past decades. Cases from several countries show just how much progress is possible:

Rwanda: Following the 1994 genocide, Rwanda made a concerted effort to rebuild its society with gender equality at its core. Today, women hold 61% of parliamentary seats , the highest percentage in the world . This remarkable achievement is in part a direct result of gender-focused policies and significant investments in women’s political empowerment. Rwanda’s progress illustrates how political will and dedicated gender-related aid can transform a society .

Bangladesh: Despite traditional gender roles, Bangladesh has made significant strides in gender equality , particularly in education and economic participation . Through targeted programs like the Female Secondary School Stipend Program and microfinance initiatives by organizations like the Grameen Bank, Bangladesh has seen substantial improvements in girls’ education and women’s economic empowerment. These initiatives have contributed to a decline in gender disparities and have spurred economic growth.

Ethiopia: In recent decades, Ethiopia has invested heavily in education , particularly for girls. Programs aimed at increasing school enrollment and reducing dropout rates among girls have led to improved literacy rates and better health outcomes. These educational advancements have empowered women economically and socially, reducing gender inequality .

Despite progress made, these achievements aren’t set in stone. Instability can rapidly undo years of progress. Recent policy backsliding in Afghanistan , Brazil and the United States shows the need for vigilance.

Empowering women empowers men, too

Discussions about the importance of reducing gender inequality often revolve around the direct benefits to women and girls. But everyone, including men, stands to win in a more gender-equal society.

First, women’s economic empowerment leads to stronger economies , which benefits everyone. Research shows that gender equality promotes healthier relationships, reduces violence and fosters more cohesive and supportive communities . Similarly, workplaces prioritizing gender equality tend to have better team dynamics, higher employee satisfaction and increased productivity . These are gains for everyone, regardless of gender.

And gender equality has distinct benefits for men. This is because it alleviates the pressures associated with traditional masculinity , which can lead to better mental health. For example, in more gender-equal societies, men report being happier with life and less stressed and depressed .

This shows that the benefits of gender equality aren’t limited to women and girls; they extend to all members of society. Everyone has a stake in helping progress move along.

Research-backed best practices

Governments and aid professionals should follow five steps for success to safeguard the advances made in gender equality and continue progressing:

1. Keep the aid flowing: Continued financial and technical support for gender equality initiatives is vital. Our research suggests policymakers should focus on integrating gender considerations into all development projects.

2. Engage everyone: Involving men and boys in gender equality efforts helps to challenge and change harmful gender norms, fostering a more inclusive society.

3. Tailor strategies: Although aid has an effect across the board, gender equality initiatives must consider each country’s unique sociopolitical and cultural contexts. Tailoring strategies to fit these contexts ensures that interventions are relevant and practical .

4. Strengthen institutions: Effective institutions and governance are crucial for successfully implementing and sustaining gender equality initiatives. Efforts to improve governance and reduce corruption will enhance the impact of aid

5. Promote education: Schools are a powerful tool for promoting gender equality. Investing in educational programs that empower women and girls and raise awareness about gender issues is essential for long-term change .

Gender equality is a cornerstone of a just and prosperous society. The benefits of empowering women extend far beyond the immediate recipients of gender-related aid, fostering economic growth, political stability and social cohesion. Our research shows that efforts to empower women really do pay off — literally and otherwise.

• Foreign aid
• Economic development
• Gender equality
• Development aid
• Development economics
• Development assistance
• Women's empowerment

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Probabilistic inference in the era of tensor networks and differential programming

Martin roa-villescas, xuanzhao gao, sander stuijk, henk corporaal, and jin-guo liu, phys. rev. research 6 , 033261 – published 6 september 2024.

• No Citing Articles
• INTRODUCTION
• TENSOR NETWORKS
• TENSOR NETWORKS FOR PROBABILISTIC…
• PERFORMANCE BENCHMARKS
• CONCLUSIONS
• ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Probabilistic inference is a fundamental task in modern machine learning. Recent advances in tensor network (TN) contraction algorithms have enabled the development of better exact inference methods. However, many common inference tasks in probabilistic graphical models (PGMs) still lack corresponding TN-based adaptations. In this paper, we advance the connection between PGMs and TNs by formulating and implementing tensor-based solutions for the following inference tasks: (A) computing the partition function, (B) computing the marginal probability of sets of variables in the model, (C) determining the most likely assignment to a set of variables, (D) the same as (C) but after having marginalized a different set of variables, and (E) generating samples from a learned probability distribution using a generalized method. Our study is motivated by recent technical advances in the fields of quantum circuit simulation, quantum many-body physics, and statistical physics. Through an experimental evaluation, we demonstrate that the integration of these quantum technologies with a series of algorithms introduced in this study significantly improves the performance efficiency of existing methods for solving probabilistic inference tasks.

• Received 7 June 2024
• Accepted 7 August 2024

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevResearch.6.033261

Published by the American Physical Society under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license. Further distribution of this work must maintain attribution to the author(s) and the published article's title, journal citation, and DOI.

Published by the American Physical Society

Physics Subject Headings (PhySH)

• Research Areas

Authors & Affiliations

• 1 Eindhoven University of Technology , Eindhoven 5600 MB, Netherlands
• 2 Hong Kong University of Science and Technology (Guangzhou), Guangzhou, China
• * Contact author: [email protected]

Article Text

Vol. 6, Iss. 3 — September - November 2024

Subject Areas

• Computational Physics
• Quantum Physics
• Statistical Physics

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A pairwise contraction A X , B Y → C Z can be conceptually visualized as dividing the tensor network into three parts: the tensors generating A X , the tensors generating B Y , and the remaining tensors R Z . Each part is indicated by a dashed circle. Variables to be sampled are denoted by a line with a slash, while the rest are marginalized.

Probabilistic interpretation of popular tensor networks. Dashed arrows denote the variable elimination order. Edges with slashes correspond to the variables of interest. The set of gray tensors is the complex conjugate of the black tensors.

Runtime speedup achieved by our tensor-based library, TensorInference.jl , across four different probabilistic inference tasks, relative to Merlin [ 37 ], libDAI [ 38 ] and JunctionTrees.jl [ 41 ]. The experiments were conducted on a CPU using the UAI 2014 inference competition benchmark problems.

TensorInference.jl 's runtime speedup on a GPU for the MMAP task, relative to CPU performance, benchmarked on the UAI 2014 inference competition problems.

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